Paragraph and sentence structure (grammar support)

As sentences combine to form paragraphs, well-developed and organized paragraphs interact to deliver information. Writers who are deliberate at every level, from spelling and punctuation to structure and content, produce work that is accurate, clear and interesting.

A foundation built on purpose

Academic writing commonly fulfills four main purposes: to summarize, to analyze, to synthesize, and to evaluate.

Summary
A summary, an accurate representation of other work, condenses a larger amount of information by extracting only vital information. It is comprised of paraphrased material, not quotations or language borrowed from the original.

Analysis
An analysis separates the different elements of complex materials and studies how the parts relate to one another. The analysis of simple table salt, for example, would require a deconstruction of its parts—the elements sodium (Na) and chloride (Cl). Then, scientists would study how the two elements interact to create the compound NaCl, sodium chloride or simple table salt.
An analysis in academic writing fulfills the same objective. Instead of deconstructing chemical compounds, academic analysis paragraphs typically deconstruct documents, processes or events. An analysis dissects the primary source, examining individual aspects and identifying how they relate to one another.

Synthesis
The purpose of an academic synthesis is to blend individual documents into a new document. An academic synthesis considers the main points from multiple pieces of writing and links the main points together to create an original point.

Evaluation
An evaluation judges the value of something and determines its worth. An academic evaluation communicates the writer’s opinion and justifications of a document or a topic.

Paragraph structure

Paragraphs separate ideas into logical, manageable chunks. An individual paragraph focuses on only one main idea and presents coherent concepts to support that point. Because all the sentences in one paragraph support the same point, a paragraph should be logical and comprehensible when read separately from other paragraphs or sections of the work it originates in. The structure and content together deliver the message with precision. To that end, a complete paragraph is comprised of the following key elements.

•  A topic sentence – implied or stated directly; strong topic sentences contain both a main idea and a controlling idea, are clear and easy to follow, and use engaging vocabulary. They may be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph.
• Supporting sentences (which comprise the “body” of the paragraph) extend, prove, or enhance the topic sentence by offering facts, reasons, statistics, quotations, or examples.
• Concluding sentences summarize the key points in a paragraph, reiterate the main idea and sometimes provide a signal of the fulfillment of the message or a connection to a subsequent paragraph.
• Transitional words and phrases, properly applied, organize ideas and show their relationship to one another. Their use should be limited. Because the contents of a unified, coherent paragraph themselves are related, excessive reliance on connectors results in  boring work and distracts the reader from the message.

Sentence structure and variety

Some writers reuse a few sentence patterns throughout their work. Like any repetitive task, reading a text that contains too many sentences with the same length and structure can become monotonous. Experienced writers mitigate this possibility by varying sentence patterns, rhythms, and lengths. The basic subject-verb-object pattern is flexible; an important set of strategies for developing variety in sentence structure involves combining sentences.

Using an –ing Modifier
Sometimes it is possible to combine two sentences by converting one of them into a modifier using the -ing verb form—singing, dancing, swimming. A modifier is a word or phrase that qualifies the meaning of another element in the sentence.

Original sentences: Steve checked the computer system. He discovered a virus.
Revised sentence: Checking the computer system, Steve discovered a virus.

To connect two sentences using an -ing modifier, add -ing to one of the verbs in the sentences (checking) and delete the subject (Steve). A comma separates the modifier from the subject of the sentence. The main idea must be in the main clause, not in the modifier. Here, the main idea is that Steve discovered a virus, not that he checked the computer system.

The -ing modifier often indicates that two actions are occurring at the same time:

Original sentences: She noticed the police car. She shifted gears and slowed down.
Revised sentence: Noticing the police car, she shifted gears and slowed down.

This means that she slowed down at the same time she noticed the police car.

Original sentences: The dog barked loudly. The dog ran across the driveway.
Revised sentence: Barking loudly, the dog ran across the driveway.

This means that the dog barked as it ran across the driveway.

Using an –ed Modifier
Sentences can sometimes be combined using an -ed verb form. To use this method, one of the sentences must contain a form of “be” as a helping verb in addition to the -ed verb form.

Original sentences: The Ramirez family was delayed by a traffic jam. They arrived several hours after the party started.
Revised sentence: Delayed by a traffic jam, the Ramirez family arrived several hours after the party started.

Using a Relative Clause
A relative clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb and describes a noun. Relative clauses function as adjectives by answering questions such as which one? or what kind? They also begin with a relative pronoun (e.g. who, whose, whom, which, or that).

Original sentences: The managing director is visiting the company next week. He lives in Seattle.
Revised sentence: The managing director, who lives in Seattle, is visiting the company next week.

To connect two sentences using a relative clause, change the subject of one of the sentences (in the above example, he) to the appropriate relative pronoun (who). The relative clause (who lives in Seattle) is placed next to the noun it describes (the managing director). The main clause is always the most important material.
While grammatically accurate, reversing the main clause and subordinate clause in the preceding sentence emphasizes where the managing director lives, not the fact that he is visiting the company.

Revised sentence: The managing director, who is visiting the company next week, lives in Seattle.

Using an Appositive
An appositive is a word or group of words that describes or renames a noun or pronoun.

Original sentences: Harland Sanders began serving food for hungry travelers in 1930. He is Colonel Sanders or “the Colonel.”
Revised sentence: Harland Sanders, “the Colonel,” began serving food to hungry travelers in 1930.

In the revised sentence, “the Colonel” renames Harland Sanders. To combine two sentences using an appositive, drop the subject and verb from the sentence that renames the noun and turn it into a phrase. Note that in the previous example, the appositive is positioned immediately after the noun it describes. An appositive may be placed anywhere in a sentence, but it must come directly before or after the noun to which it refers.

Appositive after noun: Scott, a poorly trained athlete, was not expected to win the race.
Appositive before noun: A poorly trained athlete, Scott was not expected to win the race.

Appositives are always punctuated by a comma or a set of commas.