Identifying and deploying source material

Discovering and selecting relevant material continues from the development of solid research questions until final conclusions are drawn. This is accomplished by working with databases, subject terms, and keywords to produce a base of appropriate literature for review.
Keywords and subject terms denote the primary goals of the search.

Keywords  are the natural terms related to a topic or the field specific usage of terminology. In contrast, subject terms denote the assigned vocabulary for a catalog or database.

The tools of discovery

Discovery is an iterative process in which there is not typically a straight, bright line from beginning to end. Gaps in the evidence and additional questions arise, prompting continual searching and reading.
The following resources that investigators often consult are ordered from more general and established information to more recent and specific. Although it is possible to find some resources by searching the open web using a search engine like Google or Google Scholar, this is not the most efficient or effective research method. Most of the resources described in this section are found within academic library catalogs and databases.

Databases

A database is an electronic system for organizing information. Journal databases organize and index scholarly articles. Anyone with an internet connection has free access to public databases such as PubMed and ERIC. Students can also search in library-subscribed general information databases (such as EBSCO’s Academic Search Premier) or a specialized or subject specific database (for example, a ProQuest version of CINAHL for Nursing or ERIC for Education). Library databases store and display different types of information sets than a library catalog or Google Scholar.

There are different types of databases that include:

• Indexes – with citations only
• Abstract databases – with citations and abstracts only
• Full text databases – with citations and the full text of articles, reports, and other materials.

Why is searching a database more effective than Google Scholar or the library catalog? Both can lead to good articles; however, the content of a general search engine is wide-ranging but not necessarily as comprehensive or as current as a database that is updated daily. Google Scholar also does not disclose its criteria for how results are deemed scholarly, and search results often vary in quality and availability. Neither gives as much control as a database.

Books/ebooks

North American academic libraries buy or subscribe to individual ebook titles as well as collections of ebooks. Ebooks appear on various publisher sites and platforms, such as Springer, Cambridge, ebrary (ProQuest), EBSCO, and Safari; access to these ebooks varies by platform and library.

While there is broad diversity regarding the look and feel of current integrated library systems, they operate in similar ways. Most catalogs are easily found from a library’s home page or website. The process to efficiently find books and ebooks on a specific topic involves five steps.

1.  Begin with the search box generally found on a library’s home page;
2.  search a book title, author name, or subject keywords;
3.  explore titles and links to more details about the book on the results page;
4.  use the “Advanced Search” option near the basic or single search box to further limit searches (by publication year, subject or peer review status, for example); and
5.  check the “Format” list on the advanced search page screen for limiting format to Print Books or Ebooks.

OCLC WorldCat (https://www.worldcat.org/) is the world’s largest network of library content, and it provides another way to search for books and ebooks. For students who do not have immediate access to an academic library catalog, WorldCat offers access to many library catalogs and can then locate a library that may own or subscribe to specific materials.

Research articles

While books and ebooks provide good background information on a topic, the main body of literature in a research area will typically be found in academic journals. Scholarly journals are the main forum for research publication. Unlike books and professional magazines that comment or summarize research findings, articles in scholarly journals are written by a researcher or investigative team. These authors report in detail original study findings and include the data used. Articles in academic journals also go through a screening or peer-review process before publication, implying a higher level of quality and reliability. For the most current, authoritative information on a topic, scholars and researchers look to the published, scholarly literature.

The reference list: a less obvious source

Mining the bibliographies of published books and articles is another way to find additional sources. This extends the reach of the scholarly conversation on a specific topic and enriches the literature search.

Publication mode: Identifying primary, secondary and tertiary sources

The continuing research process should include categorizing information based on publication mode, which is determining whether the information is
• firsthand (in its original form, not translated or published in another form);
• secondhand (a restatement, analysis, or interpretation); or
• thirdhand (a summary or repackaging of the original, often based on secondary sources that have been previously published).

The three labels for information sources in this category are, respectively, primary sources, secondary sources, and tertiary sources. The examples below illustrate the first-handedness, second-handedness, and third-handedness of information (distinguishing between primary, secondary, and tertiary sources  by relating the information itself to the context in which it was created). Understanding that relationship is an important skill in academic as well as workplace writing because the relationship between creation and context helps readers understand the “big picture” in which information operates and helps establish credibility.

Primary sources are the information that comes directly from its producer in its original form. Some examples of primary sources follow.

• Journal articles that report research for the first time (at least the parts about the new research, plus their data)
• Any literary work, including novels, plays, and poems
•  Breaking news and eyewitness accounts, including photographs and recorded interviews
• Diaries
• Music and dance performances and works of art
• Data
• Autobiographical blog entries
• Artifacts such as tools, clothing, or other objects
• Original documents such as tax returns, marriage licenses, and transcripts of trials
• Correspondence, including email
• Records of organizations and government agencies

Secondary sources are materials that have been processed somehow: translated, repackaged, restated, analyzed, or interpreted. Thus, the information is secondhand, or modified by the application of at least one filter. Some examples of secondary sources include

• all nonfiction books and magazine articles except autobiographies;
• an article or website that critiques a novel, play, painting, or piece of music;
• an article or web site that synthesizes expert opinion and several eyewitness accounts for a new understanding of an event; and
• the literature review portion of a journal article.

Tertiary sources  are those in which the original information has been further repackaged  because those sources index, condense, or summarize the original. Typically, by the time tertiary sources are developed, there have been many secondary sources prepared on their subjects, and that information can be considered “thirdhand.”
Tertiary sources are usually publications that offer general information. What is commonly considered tertiary sources are

• almanacs;
• dictionaries;
• guide books;
• survey articles;
• timelines;
• bibliographies;
• encyclopedias, including Wikipedia; and
• most textbooks.

Tertiary sources are usually not acceptable in college or graduate school research projects because they are too broadly separated from firsthand information.^[1]

Techniques in the search process

Effective use of search operators
Literature review research often necessitates the use of Boolean operators to combine keywords. The operators – AND, OR, and NOT — are powerful tools for searching in a database or search engine. By using a combination of terms and Boolean operators, the results can be narrowed to a more specific area than a basic keyword search allows.

Citation searching
In the interest of developing a comprehensive knowledge base, researchers trace a research process through citations. In other words, as relevant sources are selected, the sources of that work are explored and sometimes incorporated.
From a document identified as particularly useful for a literature review, scholars often search citations forward or backward to gather additional resources. Cited reference searching and reference or bibliography mining are advanced search techniques that may also help generate new ideas as well as additional keywords and subject areas.

Searching forward
For cited reference searching, Google Scholar or library databases such as Web of Science or Scopus are effective. These tools trace citations forward to link to newly published books, journal articles, book chapters, and reports that were written later than that specific document.

Searching backward
Searching through cited references will locate works that have been cited numerous times, indicating what may be a seminal work in the field. In citation mining, reference or works-cited lists are used to identify other relevant publications, tracing citations backward to find significant books, journal articles, book chapters, and reports that were used in that specific document.^[2]

Why cite sources?

In the process of integrating outside source material, citing shows the reader that the work in hand is based on what is already understood about the topic. It is also the practice of giving credit to those informing sources. Adherence to standards of academic integrity, academic misconduct and plagiarism provide further reasons for citing sources in academic research.

To avoid plagiarism and maintain academic integrity
Misrepresenting academic achievements by not giving credit to others indicates a lack of academic integrity. This is not only discouraged by the scholarly community, but it is also typically punished in American educational institutions. It may result in a failing grade or even expulsion.

To acknowledge the work of others
One major purpose of citations is to simply provide credit where it is due and to acknowledge both the hard work that has gone into producing research and the person(s) who performed that research.

To provide credibility and context
Accurate citations set ideas into an academic context and lend credibility and authority to presented claims. For example, work that is about sustainability and construction should cite experts in sustainability, construction, and sustainable construction. In addition, citing demonstrates the ways in which research is social. No one researches in a vacuum; most work is built on or supported by that of others.

To provide easy access to sources
Having accurate citations helps both reader and writer. Researchers need to keep track of the sources and information they may need to find again. Readers commonly investigate cited sources.

How to cite references

The use of supportive material requires two components. The full bibliographic entry on the Bibliography, References, or Works Cited page of the final product AND an indicator within the text, known as an in-text citation, that usually marks the beginning or end of imported material. These in-text citations are shorter forms of a full bibliographic entry in the complete reference list. These are produced and used according to one specific system or citation style. Style guides set rules for the presentation of in-text citations and their full bibliographic entries. There are numerous citation styles. Each requires much of the same publication information to be included in a citation, although the styles differ in formatting details such as capitalization, punctuation, order of publication information, and how the authors are listed.

The process for citing and referencing sources
Citation management software facilitates formatting and using reference information, and many scholars rely on them to collect, store, and organize the sources for multiple ongoing projects. Working in conjunction with many databases and search engines, these tools change or implement some of the steps described below and streamline the process of incorporating source material.

Step 1: Choose a citation style
Specific journals, university departments, even academic supervisory committees often demand a specific citation style. There are also field specific styles. The Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL) or a basic internet search will provide information on many stylebooks/handbooks.

Step 2: Create in-text citations
Include the appropriate integral or parenthetical in-text citation information (minimally, the author(s) surname and date of publication) with any paraphrased or quoted material.

Step 3: Create the accompanying full bibliographic entry
A full bibliographic entry that will appear on the References or Bibliography page can often be produced within word processing software, can be generated manually, or can be created through an integrated citation manager. Persistent and thorough management of reference information is essential to incorporating source material without plagiarizing.^[4]

Citation managers are software packages, such as EndNote or Zotero, used to create personalized databases of citations and notes. Tasks that citation management tools can be used to complete include

• importing citations from databases, websites, and library catalogs;
• creating bibliographies;
• formatting citations in a variety of styles (e.g. APA, MLA, Chicago);
• managing, categorizing, and organizing citations and documents; and
• attaching PDFs, images, and notes to citations in a collection.

Most current citation managers are similar and individual workflow may determine which tool to use. For example, researchers working from multiple computers and locations opt for web-based tools like RefWorks and Mendeley. In making a selection, it is advisable to

• find a detailed and updated comparison chart of citation management tools to determine if any is clearly ideal;
• talk to colleagues to learn if there is a discipline-oriented or department preference for one tool or if access to a specific tool is provided;
• consult a university subject librarian; and
• critically assess the required technology skills and interests.

Although all the tools advertise ease of use, there is a learning curve. It is advantageous to achieve some degree of mastery before embarking on a complex research project.^[5]