Raising the level

Part 1: Chapter 2

Questions to consider

A. Why is using a dictionary and thesaurus important when writing?

B. How can writers understand and use proper connotations?

C. How can writers avoid using slang, clichés, and vague language?

D. Is using the passive voice appropriate in academic writing?

Word choice – particularly formal and precise language – and the use of consistent, accurate grammar deliver written information with minimal confusion. This presentation of clear and comprehensible ideas builds trust between a writer and their audience and builds general credibility in an author or writing team. Accurate word choice combines with variety to produce effective writing: work that is interesting to read and that delivers a clear point.

Using a dictionary and thesaurus

Most writers clarify meaning, spelling, pronunciation, and use of particular words by using a dictionary.
Like a dictionary, a thesaurus is another indispensable writing tool. A thesaurus provides a list of synonyms and antonyms for a given term.

Using proper connotations

A denotation is the dictionary definition of a word. A connotation, on the other hand, is the emotional or cultural meaning attached to a word. The connotation of a word can be positive, negative, or neutral. The connotative meaning should be considered when choosing a word.

Below are examples of the range of meanings that may be attached to specific words. Notice that all the words have a very similar denotation; however, the connotations of each word differ.

Examples

Scrawny

Denotation: Exceptionally thin and slight or meager in body or size.
in context: Although he was a premature baby and a scrawny child, Martin has developed into a strong man.
Connotation: (Negative) In this sentence the word scrawny may have a negative connotation in the readers’ minds. They might find it to mean a weakness or a personal flaw; however, the word fits into the sentence appropriately.

Skinny

Denotation: Lacking sufficient flesh, very thin.
in context: Skinny jeans have become very fashionable in the past couple of years.
Connotation: (Positive) Based on cultural and personal impressions of what it means to be skinny, the reader may have positive connotations of the word skinny.

Lean

Denotation: Lacking or deficient in flesh; containing little or no fat.
in context: My brother has a lean figure, whereas I have a more muscular build.
Connotation: (Neutral) In this sentence, lean has a neutral connotation. It does not call to mind an overly skinny person like the word scrawny, nor does imply the positive cultural impressions of the word skinny. It is merely a neutral descriptive word.

Avoiding slang
Slang describes informal words that are considered nonstandard English. Slang often changes with passing fads and may be used by or familiar to only a specific group of people. Most people use slang when they speak and in personal correspondence, such as e-mails, text messages, and instant messages. Slang is appropriate between friends in an informal context but should be avoided in formal academic writing.

Avoiding clichés
Clichés are descriptive expressions that have lost their effectiveness because they are overused. Logically then, writing that uses clichés often suffers from a lack of originality and insight. Avoiding clichés in formal writing produces original and fresh work.
Cliché: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes my blood boil.
Plain: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes me really angry.
Original: Whenever my brother and I get into an argument, he always says something that makes me want to go to the gym and punch the bag for a few hours.

Avoiding vague language
Specific words and images produce clear, interesting writing. To that end, particular nouns, verbs, and modifiers that convey details are optimal choices.
Vague: The teacher said that plagiarism is bad.
Specific: The teacher created a presentation detailing exactly how plagiarism is illegal and unethical.

Language in Action

A. When are clichés, slang and vague language commonly used? Why are they sometimes acceptable and appropriate?

B. Why is the use of clichés, slang and vague language discouraged in academic writing?

Passive voice
Passive constructions, which focus attention on the action and the outcome, are commonly used to maintain an impersonal, academic tone. While such expressions can be imprecise because the subject is implied rather than stated explicitly, they are still an effective tool in research writing.

Active vs. Passive Voice Overview

Active: I wrote the book.

What is the verb/action? (“wrote”).  Who or what “wrote”? (“I” wrote).  Since “I” – the actor – is stated, this is an active construction.

Passive: The book was written in 1972.

What is the verb/action? (“was written”).  Who or what “wrote”? (not identified).  Since the actor is implied, this is a type of passive construction. [1]

Exercise #1

Each item contains three words with similar meanings. Categorize them as being positive, neutral or negative in the interactive drag and drop exercise below. (Note: The “answers” are not exclusively “correct”. Connotations tend to be relative. Of the choices cafe, diner, restaurant,  diner may be considered positive, neutral or negative. The objective is to begin to think carefully about word choice.)

  1. curious, nosy, interested
  2. lazy, relaxed, slow
  3. courageous, foolhardy, assured
  4. new, newfangled, modern
  5. mansion, shack, residence
  6. spinster, unmarried woman, career woman
  7. giggle, laugh, cackle
  8. boring, routine, prosaic
  9. noted, notorious, famous
  10. assertive, confident, pushy

Exercise #2

Edit the following paragraph by replacing the slang words and phrases with more formal language.
1I felt like such an airhead when I got up to give my speech.  2As I walked toward the podium, I banged my knee on a chair.  3Man, I felt like such a klutz.  4On top of that, I kept saying “like” and “um,” and I could not stop fidgeting.  5I was so stressed out about being up there.  6I feel like I’ve been practicing this speech 24/7, and I still bombed.  7It was ten minutes of me going off about how we sometimes have to do things we don’t enjoy doing.
8Wow, did I ever prove my point. 9My speech was so bad I’m surprised that people didn’t boo. 10My teacher said not to sweat it, though. 11Everyone gets nervous his or her first time speaking in public, and she said, with time, I would become a whiz at this speech giving stuff. 12I wonder if I have the guts to do it again.

Exercise #3

Replace the clichés in the sentences below with fresh, original descriptions.

  1. She is writing a memoir in which she will air her family’s dirty laundry.
  2. Beth had an ax to grind with Allen, and she planned to confront him at the party.
  3. Mr. Nguyen was at his wit’s end with the rowdy class of seventh graders.
  4. The bottom line is that Joel was fired because he missed too many days of work.
  5. Sometimes it is hard to make ends meet with just one paycheck.
  6. My brain is fried from pulling an all-nighter.
  7. Maria left the dishes in the sink all week to give Jose a taste of his own medicine.
  8. While they were at the carnival Janice exclaimed, “Time sure does fly when you are having fun!”
  9. Jeremy became tongue-tied after the interviewer asked him where he saw himself in five years.
  10. Jordan was dressed to the nines that night.

Exercise #4

Revise the following sentences by replacing the overly general words with more precise and interesting language.

  1. Adyam got into her car and drove off.
  2. I would like to travel to outer space because it would be amazing.
  3. Drashty came home after a bad day at the office.
  4. I thought Mohamed’s essay was fascinating.
  5. The dog walked up the street.
  6. The coal miners were tired after a long day.
  7. The tropical fish are pretty.
  8. I sweat a lot after running.
  9. The goalie blocked the shot.
  10. I enjoyed my Mexican meal.

Exercises 1-4 [2]

Exercise #5

Identify the subject and verb in each of the following sentences. Then, where possible, put the sentences into a passive voice structure without changing the meaning.

  1. The instructor randomly assigned topics for the final presentation.
  2. Someone in the audience sneezed very loudly and disrupted the play.
  3. Buying, selling, and transporting resources freely around the world sustain the global economy.
  4. The lab supervisor monitors every experiment and tracks the use of all supplies.
  5. Voters elect politicians they feel they can trust to represent them.
  6. Painting and sculpting are visual arts while singing and dancing are performance arts.
  7. There is evidence that personality types are driven by genetics.
  8. Celebrities expand interest in social issues simply by taking a position or making a significant donation.
  9. The instructor taught both the formulas and mnemonic devices to help students remember them.
  10. Students sometimes misuse Internet resources, resulting in academic integrity issues.

Media Attributions

  1. Adapted from Poulter, S. Overview. Retrieved September 7, 2021, from https://human.libretexts.org/@go/page/7124 ↵
  2. Hall, B., & Wallace, E. (2018). College ESL Writers: Applied Grammar and Composing Strategies for Success English Open Textbooks. 14.  ↵
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Sourcing, summarizing, and synthesizing:  Skills for effective research writing  Copyright © 2023 by Wendy L. McBride is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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