Introduction to Education

Becoming a Professional

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

University of Arkansas Libraries

Fayetteville, AR

Introduction to Education by Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

Adapted from  Education 2010:  Introduction to Education licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 by Brenda Alward which was modified from  “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

Contents

- 1. Why Teach?

- 2. What is the Purpose of School?

- 3. Who are Today's Students?

- 4. How Do Social Issues Affect Students?

- 5. What is Taught?

- 6. What Makes an Effective Teacher?

- 7. What is a Positive Classroom Environment?

- 8. What are the Ethical and Legal Issues in Schools?

- 9. What is an Educational Philosophy?

- 10. Excellence or Equity...Which is More Important?

- 11. What Can a New Teacher Expect?

- References

1

Why Teach?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

Why Teach?

Why do teachers teach? It is a rather simple question, however, the question what is a teacher, must be addressed first. Merriam-Webster’s definition of a teacher is “one whose occupation is to instruct” (Merriam-Webster, 2008, para. 1). That is a rather one-dimensional definition of a teacher, as teachers these days offer so much more to the class than just the information; they offer themselves. A collective definition of a teacher, is someone who “yearns to help children learn, watch them grow, and make a meaningful difference in the world” (Teacher Support Network, 2007, para. 2). This definition must be the main reason as to why individuals pursue teaching as a career. Generally, the pay is low to fair, but the overall rewards are much greater.  As a teacher, one can touch the hearts of the young and open their minds in order to tap their thirst for knowledge.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Understand that the decision to teach is motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards

- Identify reasons for teaching

- Define the role of a teacher in current society

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Intrinsic reward

- Extrinsic reward

- Teacher

- Compensation

- Benefits

The Educator Pathway

There are multiple pathways to becoming a teacher, but no matter the pathway, it can be a lengthy process.  In the state of Arkansas, for example, a traditional teaching pathway requires that you have at least a Bachelor’s Degree, as well as pass certification tests.  You are taking your first step by taking an introductory course in education.  Sometimes a first step on the pathway to a career is to decide on the level you wish to teach, Elementary or Secondary, as well as your academic subject major(s) and/or minor(s).  All of your coursework at any university, will depend on the level you wish to teach and your major and/or minor.

Arkansas has several certification levels.  They are:

- Birth to Kindergarten

- Kindergarten through 6

- Grades 6 through 8

- Grades 7 through 12

More information can be found on the Department of Elementary and Secondary Education website.

As you consider the grades you are looking to teach, consider these certification bands.  Talking with an advisor at your chosen four year university will help you decide what may be best for you.  Each university will have their own requirements.  Some of them will require you to spend a certain number of hours working with students before you can apply for acceptance into the program.  Other universities may require you to write an admission essay.   At this stage in your development, you should sit down with an advisor from the university you wish to attend.  They will be able to map out a course for you so that you make the best use of your time and money, as well as know the process for acceptance into their university.

Teaching is not often sought after for the salary,  but one with long hours and a flat rate of pay. The income, of course, depends on where the teacher is instructing. Private schools, parochial schools, and charter schools, in general, tend to have lower pay scales.  This is because they may not have the same revenue base as the public schools.  An educator’s compensation (what is rewarded for a service) can include money as well as benefits such as health insurance and retirement.  This compensation can vary across states and countries.

2018-2019 Teacher Salary Benchmark Report or Educator Pay and State Spending

However, educators may choose to teach in these schools because of the schools’ philosophy, religious preferences, or a variety of other reasons.  Regardless of the reason, most educators will agree they went into teaching because they have the desire to spread knowledge, and/or to watch children reach their full potential.

Reasons for Teaching: Passion, Love, and Creativity

Passion

There are multiple factors in deciding to become a teacher.  For one, it is a healthy alternative to other professions as the Training Development Agency’s (TDA) research has found that about twice as many teachers truly enjoy their work, as opposed to those who have careers in marketing, IT and accounting (TDA, In Summary, para. 1). Work is not truly work, if it is enjoyed.  For example, Beth Ashfield, a math teacher, spoke of her job with passion, “I love my subject, but I know it’s not socially acceptable to say that… in school, I can be as enthusiastic as I want to be. I’m able to convey that enthusiasm to the students, to allow them to become confident and creative in their approach to the subject” (TDA, Beth Ashfield, Maths teacher, para. 1).  Becoming a teacher was important for her, due to her great love of a particular subject, and the desire to share it with others in hopes that they might discover the same for themselves.  As a teacher one is always learning, whether it is of one’s content material, or something new from a pupil.  Being a teacher requires an open mind, for the teacher is always the student.  A teacher guides his or her charges on a path to self discovery where they can learn about the world, and ultimately, themselves.

Love

Beyond passion, another reason that teachers teach is simply for the love of teaching.  As stated by (Liston & Garrison, 2003) Love is a “creative, critical, and disruptive force in teaching and learning.”  A teacher who loves his or her job will be a better teacher and have a greater impact on the students he or she influences.  Classroom efforts to manage, instruct, and direct groups of twenty to thirty students frequently requires a feelings for others and an intuition that connects teacher to student and to subject matter (Liston & Garrison, 2003).  For the new teacher, the multiple tasks entailed in this activity can be overwhelming. (Liston & Garrison, 2003)  For the experienced teacher, they can seem almost unconscious (Liston & Garrison, 2003).  Most teachers truly have passion for what they do, but they also have a love for it as well.

Creativity

“Every person is unique and the challenge is to find fun ways to guide individuals to learn and understand what they are interested in learning” (B. Anders, personal communication, February 2, 2008). There are many ways to be creative in the classroom, whether it is using projects, videos,and presentations, but what if the creativity stemmed from the teacher?

Being creative is important in teaching, for the students are the audience. No one knows this better than entertainers, who are creative and use their ingenuity to bring to life rather dull aspects of education.  This in and of itself is talent, and there are those who devote themselves to that.  Paul Keogh, a Modern Languages teacher, had always aspired to be an entertainer, however, he chose teaching as his profession instead.  He equated teaching to entertainment, but more importantly, he remarks, “I love to see them growing personally, socially and academically” (TDA, Paul Keogh, Modern Languages teacher, para. 3).  This statement itself encompasses the point of education, for there cannot be growth without learning.

Reasons for Teaching: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards

Researchers have identified a set of occupational rewards that can help us determine the qualities that might attract people to a teaching career (Feiman-Nemser & Floden, 1986).  These rewards can be categorized as either extrinsic or intrinsic.

Extrinsic rewards are those that are more public such as money, prestige, and power.  Intrinsic rewards are those discussed in the earlier part of the chapter. They are more internal, such as satisfaction with a job well done, or the enjoyment of the work itself. The rewards received by being a teacher are different than those received by someone like a salesman, for example.  If a salesman is doing well, he makes his quota, and he then earns his monetary bonus.  It is possible that he receives a plaque to hang behind his desk stating that he was the number one salesman for this period in time.

Intrinsic rewards are more internal rewards. Teachers’ rewards are not so tangible, but rather, “They are rewarded more by witnessing their students succeed and follow their dreams than by any plaque “ (Daily Egyptian, 2005, para. 7).  A group of school teachers who had participated in a study that looked into why teachers taught in high challenge schools, jointly agreed that what their students achieve under their instruction was rewarded enough for all the time that they devote to their students.  “Student achievement was another reward the teachers discussed as a reason for staying.  When their students were successful, the teachers felt incredibly rewarded.” (Morris, 2007, pg 58).  The reward teachers receive is a feeling, and feelings are more special and memorable than gold and silver plaques hung stoically on a wall proclaiming an individual’s success.  For teaching, it is not about what the teachers can achieve, but what they can get their students to achieve, and through their students, reflects a teacher’s greatest achievement.

Why do teacher s teach?

To address the opening question, “Why do teachers teach?”, the answer is simple; “They teach for the love of children and to contribute to the well-being of all of us” (Teachers are Important, 1998, para. 4).  It is something inside them. It is a drive, a force, a passion, a talent that they wish to dispel upon his or her students in order to watch them succeed.  Choosing to be a teacher is not for the money, as a teacher’s monetary compensation is hardly adequate given all that they give to their students.  Becoming a teacher is almost like heeding a calling.  It is not for the light at heart, but rather, for those who love children and people, who have a passion for education, and who love to share in that passion.  Teachers yearn to see the burning desire to learn, and love to see the excitement of discovery, and that, is why teachers teach.

Thoughts

Watch the following video with this question in mind:  Is this teacher speaking to a more intrinsic or extrinsic reward for teaching?

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/introductiontoeducation/?p=18

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” by Alyschia Conn, Jasmine Tucay and Sarah Wolff licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 and “Education 2010 – Introduction to Education” by Brenda Alward.

2

What is the Purpose of School?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

What is the Purpose of School?

What is the purpose of school?  Neil Postman said that “without a purpose, schools are houses of detention, not attention” (1995, p. 7).  Most countries have systems of formal education and many of these are compulsory.  Although the names of schools differ, most include a primary school for young children and a secondary school for teenagers (Roser & Oritz-Ospina, 2019).

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Understand the basic purposes of school

- Describe several different understandings of the concept of “school”

- Define the nature of school for each level: elementary, middle, and high schools

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Compulsory

- Formal Education

- Informal Education

- Vocational

- Charter School

Defining School

Before landing upon a definition for school, it is important to delineate the differences between education and schooling.

Education is a process of learning and growing as one gains understanding about the surrounding world.  This is a lifelong process. It is, as John Dewey (1916) put it, a social process – ‘a process of living and not a preparation for future living.’

Schooling can often look like an institution with a very specific motive – drill learning into people according to some plan often drawn up by others. Paulo Friere (1973) famously called this banking – making deposits of knowledge.  This type of “schooling” treats learners like objects.

Interested in learning more about this? https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/15/01/whats-worth-learning-school

Schooling vs. Education Sort

Sort the following phrases into the category where it best fits:

Schooling

Education

Choices:  Rigid, Structured; Facts, information to be absorbed; Life experiences; Personal, individual interests; Stops and starts, finite; May not be all that is learned; Always going on; Can exist without schooling; Can exist without education

School Culture

What makes a good school culture?  Shafer (2018) noted that it is all about connections. She describes five interwoven elements that support school structure, 1) Fundamental beliefs, 2) Shared values, 3) Norms (how people believe they should act), 4) Patterns and behaviors, and 5) Tangible evidence. To read more about those elements, you can find the article here: https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/uk/18/07/what-makes-good-school-culture

Purposes of School

Is School for Knowledge?

If asked, most people would say that the purpose of school is to provide knowledge, but the question becomes what knowledge and who should decide. Is learning for the sake of learning what school is about? Learning expands the mind and school is a way for students to be exposed to different ideas and concepts. Knowledge obtained through school can provide students with a sense of personal fulfillment (Education).

“It seems to me, that education has a two-fold function to perform in the life of man and in society: the one is utility and the other is culture. Education must enable a man to become more efficient, to achieve with increasing facility the legitimate goals of his life.”
–Martin Luther King Jr (1947)

It is argued that anything learned in school could be learned on your own (Gatto, 2005). In the modern day of the Internet and with vast libraries of knowledge available to us, this is very true. There then becomes a problem of motivation. What would make someone want to learn math or science? Does a child just decide someday that they want to learn all about Chemistry? (Postman 1995) It is not an issue of what information is necessary, but an issue of exposing students to different ideas that they can choose to grow and build on. It is teaching them how to learn. Education should expose students to information and teach them how to think, not tell them what to think. Martin Luther King Jr said, “Education must enable one to sift and weigh evidence, to discern the true from the false, the real from the unreal, and the facts from the fiction” (1947).

Is School for Getting a Job?

Not everyone has the opportunities or wants to go to college. Therefore, a purpose of school must be to give students the skills to get a job. This means that education is a way for anyone to support him or herself and economically contribute to society (Education). Some of these skills are taught in the basic classes everyone takes: reading, writing, and arithmetic. There is also vocational education, which is extremely important to the lives of students who do not enjoy academia. Just because a student does not like school does not mean that the school should ignore them. It is the school’s responsibility to educate all students and prepare them for their future.

Is School for Socialization?

It is argued that any of the above items can be learned on your own (Gatto, 2005). As stated earlier, the issue of motivation and outside circumstances does provide a problem with this theory, but what can replace the socialization that a student receives in school?

http://www.faculty.rsu.edu/~felwell/TheoryWeb/Postman.bmp

“Schooling at its best can be about how to make a life, which is quite different from how to make a living” (Postman, 1995, p. x).

Einstein said that the school’s responsibility is to educate the individual as a free individual, but to also educate them to be part of society (Haselhurst, 2007). Students are around hundreds of people their own age and this teaches them how to act in society and how to communicate. This is helpful no matter what they do with their future and nothing can replace those skills. Being in a school with that many people also exposes the student to people who are different from him or herself and this is extremely helpful in anyone’s development as a human being and a better member of society (Postman, 1995). Professor Nel Noddings said that the school’s aim is “to produce competent, caring, loving, and lovable people” (Kohn, 2004, p.2).

Types of Schools

In most states, the school year is 180 days. School days often last a total of six and a half hours.  This means that a child may spend more than 1,000 hours in school each year.  In elementary school, how are these hours typically spent?  In these sections, we will discuss the teacher’s role, what students experience in elementary, middle school, and high school.

Elementary

An elementary school is the main point of delivery of primary education for children between 5-11.  In elementary school, children are exposed to a broad range of topics and often remain together in one classroom. School districts, along with the state, determine the curriculum, but generally a student learns basic arithmetic, English proficiency, social studies, science, physical development, and fine arts.

The Role of the Teacher

An elementary school teacher is trained with an emphasis on human cognitive and psychological development as well as the principles of curriculum development and instruction.  Teachers earn either a Bachelors or Master’s degree in Early Childhood or Elementary Education.

The public elementary teacher typically instructs between twenty and thirty students of diverse learning needs.  These teachers use a variety of ways to teach, with a focus on student engagement (getting a student’s attention).

What Students Experience

Originally, an elementary school was synonymous with primary education.  Many students prior to World War I did not attend school past Grade 8.  Over the past few decades, schools in the USA have seen numbers of high school graduates rise and with it, changes in what students experience in school.

An elementary school typically contained one-teacher, one-class models, but this has been changing over time.  Multi-age programs, where children in different grades share the same classroom and teachers. Another alternative is that children might have a main class and go to another teacher’s room for one subject.  This could be called a rotation and it is similar to the concept of teams found in junior high school.

Middle School

Day in the Life of a Middle Schooler

High School

While there is no set standard for an American high school, some generalizations can be made about the majority.  Schools are managed by local, elected school districts.  Students ages 14-18 participate in four years of school.  School years are normally around nine months and are broken up into quarters or semesters.  High School curriculum is defined in terms of Carnegie Units, which approximate 120 class contact hours within a year.  No two schools will be the same, and no two students will have the same classes.  There are some general core subjects, but electives will vary by school.

Activity:

Fill out the following to highlight was is important in each level: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1gAAwwsThkvlVNHrYcII_2m5PByo8ggC4JQe6QJy4dYw/edit?usp=sharing

Thoughts

Watch the following video with this question in mind:  According to this author, what do effective schools do differently? Does this align more closely with the notion of “schooling” or “education”?

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/introductiontoeducation/?p=65

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter:

Roser, Max; Ortiz-Ospina, Esteban (2019). “Primary and Secondary Education”. Our World in Data. Retrieved 24 October 2019.

Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/ed/15/01/whats-worth-learning-school

Picture: Dessiner le futur adulte by Alain Bachellier. Sourced from Flickr and reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) licence. http://www.flickr.com/photos/alainbachellier/537180464/

Shafer, L. (2018) https://www.gse.harvard.edu/news/uk/18/07/what-makes-good-school-culture

Postman, Neil. (1995). The End of Education. New York: Vintage Books.

Education. (n.d.). Retrieved September 16, 2007 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education

Gatto, John Taylor. (2005) Dumbing us Down: The Hidden Curriculum of Compulsory Schooling. (Rev. ed.). Canada: New Society Publishers.

Haselhurst, Geoff. (2007) Philosophy of Education. Retrieved September 19,2007 from http://www.spaceandmotion.com/Philosophy-Education.htm

Hirsch, E.D. Jr. (2006). The Knowledge Deficit. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

King, Martin Luther Jr. (1947). The Purpose of Education. Retrieved September 19, 2007 from http://www.drmartinlutherkingjr.com/thepurposeofeducation.htm

Kohn, Alfie. (2004). What Does it Mean to be Well Educated? Boston: Beacon Press.

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Putting students in a group where they have to work well together in order to get a passing grade is an example of what purpose of education?

1. Citizenship

2. Socialization

3. Knowledge

Having students register to vote during class and holding mock elections is an example of what purpose of education?

1. Job Skills

2. Knowledge

3. Citizenship

Learning basic math skills fulfills what purpose of education?

1. Job Skills

2. Socialization

3. Cultural Enrichment

Reading Shakespeare and Plato are examples of what purpose of education?

1. Job Skills

2. Citizenship

3. Knowledge

Holding a series of multicultural events would be an example of what purpose?

1. Socialization

2. Job Skills

3. Citizenship

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_Education/Philosophy_and_Ethics/Purpose

3

Who are Today's Students?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

Who Are Today’s Students?

We have all spent time as students, and our teachers had their opinions of us. Some of those opinions may have been based in fact and some of them may have been based in their own prejudice and bias. We have to accept students for who they are, where they come from, and the circumstances of their life. We have to keep our personal bias and prejudice out of the classroom. If we do not we will, even if we don’t realize it, treat them in a way that may have a negative impact on the learning environment and their learning.

It is known that in order to learn, we have to take a risk. According to Erikson’s “Stages of Social Development,” if the circumstances are positive, we develop a sense of autonomy during our toddler years. Autonomy is the feeling/belief that we can do things, we can take care of ourselves, and we can do for ourselves. The next stage which we enter around three years old is where we develop the initiative. We try new things, explore, and experiment. It is during both of these stages that we take many risks.  Autonomy and initiative are major foundations for the learning process.

*Google Images

Who are today’s students? We understand that we all come from different family structures and socio-cultural backgrounds.  Understanding these differences helps an educator to better meet the needs of the classroom.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Discuss the predominant issues and societal trends confronting contemporary education.

- Identify diversity and how it impacts education

- Explain how the role of the teacher both is impacted and impacts how children are served in the school

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Diversity

- Multiculturalism

- Socioeconomic status

- IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Act)

- Child abuse

- Bullying

In order for us to feel confident and secure in taking risks, we have to feel safe. We have to be both physically and psychologically safe. Our students have to be relatively sure that their physical being is not in danger. Equally important is being psychologically safe. Students have to feel they will not be laughed at, made fun of, ridiculed or humiliated for their learning endeavors. Do you remember teachers who used some of these techniques in their teaching or allowed classmates to engage in these behaviors? If you look at Maslow’s “Hierarchy of Needs,” you will see that safety needs are the next level above basic food and shelter.

Educators play an important role in helping students feel safe.  If a student does not feel psychologically safe, he/she may stop engaging in class because it is  “safer” that way, especially if it is a student who struggles with academic endeavors.   When this happens, learning fails to take place.

A major factor in feeling safe, and being willing to take risks lies in the relationship between teacher and student.  Teachers have to work to develop a respectful, trusting relationship with students.  The lack of this relationship is the cause of many difficulties in the classroom between teacher and student, as well as the lack of motivation and willingness to take learning risks.    Part of treating students respectfully is listening to their ideas, concerns, and thoughts and being willing to compromise with them.

Students are Different

Students are different.  They each come with special academic, social, cultural, and emotional needs.  This section will highlight some differences found in classrooms today and how educators help connect with their students.

Academic Needs

While human growth and development follows predictable patterns and stages, every human goes through the stages at a different rate. A teacher may be teaching a room full of eighth graders who are in various levels of development. This is particularly challenging for teachers in the elementary years. It is not uncommon to teach in a classroom with four or five different reading levels. It is only with this knowledge that teachers can truly understand students and provide the best possible learning environment for them.

Student reading CC0 from pixabay.com

Our current knowledge of a subject forms the base for future learning. Educators take students where they are at and build on their current knowledge. This perspective will change what educators do with students and it will make a difference in how the student perceives themselves. If they have a more positive perception of their skills and abilities, you will find they are more willing to take risks.  For example, if an educator tells a student, “Your paragraphing skills are poor and we need to work on improving them”, the conversation starts with a negative and the student feels inadequate and this impacts self-esteem, and confidence, as well as motivation.  However, if educators tell the same student, “Your writing contains new insights and ideas that are not often considered by others.  One way we can improve on the understanding of those ideas, however, is to work on improving your paragraphing skills.  We can work on that together.”  Educators set a more positive tone and greater confidence in the student.  Try not to get into the mindset of trying to “fix” what’s not working and work from the idea of “This is where the student is strong, and this is where I want to take them.”  It will make a big difference in the student’s willingness to work hard, and in their success.

Areas of Diversity

While our students will be at different levels of learning, they will have different learning needs and possess a variety of learning styles as well. They will also differ in many other ways. A few of these are:

- Gender

- Family Structure

- Family’s beliefs on education

- How family values education

- Socioeconomic Status

- Culture

- Language

- Background Knowledge/Experience

- Religion

- Students receiving Special Education Services

- Students who are working above grade level in one or more area

Classrooms are diverse in many ways, but one thing is almost certain, you will have students in your class who are receiving special education services. Prior to 1975, special education students were segregated into their own classrooms, or not even included in our neighborhood schools. In 1975, Public Law 94-142 created provisions for special needs students to be included in our schools. In 1990, it was amended and renamed the “Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.” (IDEA) The law mandates that services be provided for students.  Review the information on IDEA in the chapter, “School Laws and Organization”.

Child coloring CC0 from pixabay.com

Teachers may also have students in your classroom who are working above grade level in one subject area or more. Some, but not all, may be identified as gifted and/or talented by their school. When you have children you know need an additional challenge, work with parents and other professionals to provide the necessary experiences for them.

Family: A Partner in Education

One of the biggest influences on a student is the family. There are a wide variety of family structures in our society today. The current state of our economy has placed a financial burden on many families. The structure of a family, the expectations they have for their children, the economic and social climate that they live under and the overall well-being of the family will influence a child’s performance in school. It is our responsibility to be aware of situations and help students work and deal with them, not ridicule or punish because of circumstances. We have to respect families for what they are, accept and tolerate their ideas, values, and circumstances even if we don’t agree. Here is another place where we have to push our bias and prejudices aside and look at what’s best for the student. For example, a child goes to day care every day after school and in the evening he/she is cared for by grandparents because one or more parents work. We would want to look closely at any homework we might consider sending home. Chances are this child is not going to have the opportunity, or the support, to get it done. Sending it anyway sets the student up for failure from the start. We might have to modify our practices to accommodate this child. Being a teacher is not easy! If you think it is, I suggest you look for another career. I don’t want you to be disappointed later. In order to do the best for our students, we often have to go the extra mile, change many of our practices, and look for ways to accommodate students and their situations.

What percent of time does a typical elementary child spend OUT of school, mainly at home?

1. 10%

2. 22%

3. 86%

4. 7%

Social Factors

The community in which you teach and the children live will have an influence on them, as well as on what happens in your classroom. The society in which we live will also influence what happens. We have to be aware of the values and expectations of the community in which we teach. Not only that, but we have to share those same values and expectations. If we do not, then we need to consider teaching somewhere else. Some of the concerns facing our children today are:

- Economic Status

- Racism

- Discrimination

- Immigration and Cultural Concerns

- Substance Abuse

- Child Abuse

- Sexual Concerns

- Obesity

- Bullying

- School Violence

- Truancy

- Drop Out

Our job would be much easier if our students lived in a perfect world and we taught in it as well. That is not reality. As educators, we have to recognize that our students have many outside influences that will impact their performance in school. As we move through the remainder of the semester, we will be talking more about the students in our classrooms and what we can do to provide them with positive learning experiences. Your classroom will most likely be a very diverse place, but please remember to keep your bias and prejudices out of your work with students. Take the time to know students; their likes/dislikes, their strengths/weaknesses, learning styles, higher intelligences, outside influences (family, church, extracurricular activities) and always practice the concepts of “Respect, Acceptance and Tolerance.” We have to find the best way to help our students deal with those outside factors AND help them learn at the same time. Again, it’s not an easy task. At times it will take all of the patience and energy we have. However, I will tell you, it is one of the most rewarding experiences you will ever have!

Who are today’s students?

To address the opening question, “Why do teachers teach?”, the answer is simple; “They teach for the love of children and to contribute to the well-being of all of us” (Teachers are Important, 1998, para. 4).  It is something inside them. It is a drive, a force, a passion, a talent that they wish to dispel upon his or her students in order to watch them succeed.  Choosing to be a teacher is not for the money, as a teacher’s monetary compensation is hardly adequate given all that they give to their students.  Becoming a teacher is almost like heeding a calling.  It is not for the light at heart, but rather, for those who love children and people, who have a passion for education, and who love to share in that passion.

Thoughts
Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment”, licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

4

How Do Social Issues Affect Students?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

“Children” by aka Quique is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

How do social issues affect students?

In a recent population survey, 7.1 million students under the age of 18 lived in a neighborhood with a poverty rate of 30 percent or more. This high incidence of poverty places these children at a higher rate of becoming ill, not having proper health care, becoming parents before finishing school, using illegal drugs, being exposed to or involved in violence, and going to jail before they are even old enough to vote. These social issues, which will be discussed in this chapter, can impact a child’s life both outside school as well as inside school.  In education, there is a responsibility to teach them all, but are there things that teachers should know to do this well?  Children living in below average neighborhoods should be given the same opportunities as children living in average and above average housing.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Identify critical social issues that directly influence the students’ academic success in the classroom

- Describe the impact poverty has on a student’s potential for success in schools

- Define the role of communication between the school and family

Key terms in the Chapter are…

- Socioeconomic status

- At risk

- Poverty

The Challenges of Poverty

A major disadvantage to students produced from living in poverty-stricken neighborhoods is the possibility of growing up not able to succeed in life because they were not properly trained as children. It is the responsibility of the authoritarians, policymakers, parents, schools, and teachers to make sure each student, despite their living arrangements, is given an equal opportunity to succeed. Statistics have shown that students who live in poor neighborhoods usually test lower on standardized tests. The students also tend to learn less than students in average schools. In the book, “The Good–and the Not-So-Good–News About American Schools,” 13-year-old students were not on the appropriate grade level in math. These students were doing math problems on a 9-year-old’s level. Many other disadvantages play a part in the lack of success in children who live in low-income neighborhoods. Education is not a key factor that is stressed in the home as evidenced by the low rate of parental involvement. In addition, children living in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods have few role models to show them ways to improve their lives and break the cycle of poverty.

In order to make sure students living in low income neighborhoods are well prepared for life as adults, certain things are required. Basic aspects include: greater access to support that all families need to raise kids successfully–employment opportunities for parents, quality health care, formal and informal networks of adults who can assist in times of crisis, vibrant religious institutions, organized recreation, and safe streets. Parental opportunities, good health care, religious groups, and fun activities all make for a well rounded student, but these children need a quality education. Education has been the vehicle for advancing the social and economic status of children and families, compensating for poverty and distressed environments, and, for millions of kids, paving the way to opportunities unavailable to their parents. Education is the catalyst for success. Research shows that school completion and academic success increase children’s ability to escape poverty, form strong families, and raise successful kids of their own. Research from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (cite), Money Income in the United States, states that a college graduate earns twice as much money a year compared to an adult with only a high school diploma, and that same college graduate earns about three times as much as a high school dropout. Sadly, students living in these low-income neighborhoods are falling by the wayside. The chances of getting a quality education while living in poverty are very small. “If our nation is to remain prosperous and committed to equality of opportunity, we must create successful schools for poor children”(citation and page number).

Contributing to Successful Students

It is possible for students in poverty stricken neighborhoods to succeed but it requires quite a bit of dedication. In order to contribute to kids’ success in school and overall development five ideas should be demonstrated. They include:

1. Preschool experiences that prepare children to learn,

2. Schools that are small enough to engage every child,

3. High standards in curriculum, instruction, and assessment,

4. Strong, meaningful family participation, and

5. Making education part of a larger community commitment to healthy youth and family development.

“High-quality early childhood care and preschool education can stimulate cognitive development, increase school readiness, and advance academic achievement in the early elementary grades. [1]” Smaller classroom sizes promote more one on one between the student and teacher. Students are able to receive more individualized help. The teachers are also able to change the flow of instructional time if necessary; they can do what works best for the class as a whole. Higher success rates also come from having “high learning standards, challenging curricula based on those standards, and instructional practices that keep kids actively engaged in learning.” In schools standards are set so the students comprehend the seriousness and the value the school places on academic success. “States like Kentucky, Washington, and Maryland and districts like Milwaukee and Philadelphia have taken significant steps to set standards that are aligned with curriculum, instruction, and assessment practices. ” Parental involvement and parent-teacher interaction is also a key to the success of the students. Interaction between the teacher and parent can be as simple as a brief email or telephone call. Involvement should include knowing the latest news in the school, participating in any parent orientations and meetings, and helping and being aware of the students’ homework.

What social issue impacted your community?

1. Poverty

2. Drug Abuse

3. Homelessness

4. I am not sure

Other Social Issues That May Affect Education

Homelessness

A child’s success may be dependent upon many factors that may take place in the home or the lack thereof. According to the Year 2000 Report to Congress on the Education for Homeless Children and Youth Program, there were approximately 928,429 homeless children and youth (Pre K-12) reported in 2000, an increase of 10 percent over the last reporting year of 1997, with 65 percent of these children in Pre K-Grade 6 (citation). Students who are homeless are defined as lacking a stable, long term place to reside. The students may be:

- Sharing the housing of other persons due to the loss of housing, economic hardship, or a similar reason,

- Living in motels, hotels, trailer parks, or camping grounds due to the lack of alternative adequate accommodations,

- Living in cars, parks, public spaces, abandoned buildings, substandard housing, bus or train stations, or similar settings,

- Living in emergency or transitional shelters,

- Abandoned in hospitals,

- Awaiting foster care placement,

- Have a primary nighttime residence that is not designed for regular sleeping accommodation for humans.

Homeless students are battered psychologically and emotionally and have added pressures once entering the school building. These children are presented with many obstacles to overcome in school ranging from having their homes taken away, living in a shelter, to not knowing when and where their next meal is going to come. Once in the classroom the students have a hard time focusing, forcing them to become less motivated about completing school. Homeless students have a higher rate of dropping out of school entering the workforce because of lack of enthusiasm and focus. Those students who chose to be homeless, because they have run away from home, experience both sexually and physical abuse. They sometimes become involved with illegal drugs and excessive alcohol use. Other factors that may be a factor that might prohibit a quality education for a homeless child may include: poor nutrition, inadequate sleep, and lack of health care.

Family Composition

An interview with a social worker revealed the impact home and social environment on a child’s education. In this social worker’s school, a school for children with emotional and/or learning disabilities, a number of the students reside in neighborhoods at or below poverty level. They are oftentimes being raised by single parents or grandparents who also care for other children or relatives placing the child’s education low on the caregiver’s list of priorities. Children from these types of environments often display inappropriate behavior that negatively impacts their academic development.

A major difficulty for the teachers and social workers in this school is the lack of parental involvement. The school, according to the social worker, is at least an hour long bus ride for the parents (most don’t own cars) which keeps many parents from visiting the school and meeting the child’s teachers. The school has often offered to fund the parents’ transportation to and from the school; however the parents face difficulties in getting time off from their jobs. Whether or not the parents’ have an interest in the child’s education, the children do not see a connection between the parent’s and their teachers resulting in lack of academic motivation and no desire to behave appropriately.

There is a fascinating article in The Elementary School Journal entitled “Teachers’ Reported Practices of Parent Involvement: Problems and Possibilities,” by Joyce L. Epstein and Henry Jay Becker of Johns Hopkins University which addresses the family and how parental involvement affects a child’s educational process. This article is about a study of teachers in Maryland and how they feel about parent involvement. The comments from the 3,700 teachers vary tremendously from teachers who strongly believe that their job can only be performed adequately if they can rely on parental help, and the other opposite thought from teachers who have long given up the hope of parental help. Some of the teachers polled felt that “parents have so little prime time to spend with their child or children,” (Epstein, 1982) that it is very hard to cultivate a parent-teacher relationship much less a parent-teacher-child relationship.

This study/article also delves into the world of today, and how the working parents have more demands on their time and how helping kids at home becomes a more frustrating task when a parent is tired or has so many jobs to just pay the bills (Epstein, 1982). Teachers seem to be split down the middle when it comes to deciding if it is worth their effort to try to involve parents, but the general synopsis of the study was that in the long run it is well worth the effort for the child’s sake no matter what the family structure entails. Single parents, working parents, grandparents raising their grandchildren, and all family structures should begin with the child’s educational process at home and help the schools and teachers open the doors and windows into the mind of the child. This applies to every socioeconomic structure of family, not just poverty structures.

Drugs, Alcohol, and Abuse

Drugs and alcohol can have a lasting effect on children. The effects can start in fetal development and continue through life development. Having a mother that uses alcohol or drugs while she is pregnant can affect the fetus and have lasting effects on their cognitive and social development. Alcohol can cause mental retardation, slower physical development, severe learning and cognitive disabilities. A mother that uses illegal drugs, like marijuana, cocaine, etc, can also have a severe and lasting effect on the child. They can decrease the cellular oxygen and nutrient supply for the fetus which then affects the parts of the brain responsible for learning, memory, behavior, and cognitive functions. It can also cause language delays and attention problems. (Kaplan, 122)

Drugs and alcohol can also affect more than just the child’s body, it also affects the environment they live in. The drug and alcohol abuse leads to poverty, abuse, and neglect in the home. The parents are too busy with their habits that they have little emotional involvement with the child. (Kaplan, 124-125).

Abuse is also a major problem affecting children in school and in life. Out of the three million children that are reported each year to child protective service agencies for being alleged victims of abuse and neglect, about one-third (about one million) are determined to be legitimate cases that require action (Bullough, 69). There are three types of abuse; physical, sexual, and emotional. Physical neglect is the most common form of child maltreatment. It is responsible for about sixty percent (60%) of all reported cases of abuse (Bullough, 57). They all have major lasting effects on the children. All of them cause psychological problems in the child. Abuse can cause language delays, poor social relationships with peers, lower intelligence scores, and behavioral problems. Studies show that the abused child also is more likely to experience failure in school because of all the problems abuse causes. (Kaplan, 355) At least half of all valid cases of child abuse involve caregivers that are under alcohol or drug abuse.(Bullough, 43)

All of this can cause effects on the child’s learning. The brain development, emotional development causes problems in school and how the child can learn.

How can families and schools better communicate?

Although the research and statistics about the impact of social issues on a child’s education can be overwhelming, the role of communication can help. It is hard to believe that in today’s world we have a breakdown in communication on any level. We have the ability to be connected with each other 24 hours a day seven days a week. Cell phones, pagers, and the Internet are all devices we use on a daily basis to stay connected, so it is not surprising that the communications between the families and the schools the children attend are in sync more than ever. There is a real effort to include families into the school environment, and in some ways the programs the schools have for our children could not take place without the effort of the parents and guardians. Communication with our children’s teachers is right at our fingertips, but without getting the information out to parents on how to access this information, it is a resource that is wasted.

Staying in Touch

When parents are involved in their children’s education, studies show that students generally have higher grades and test scores, and are more likely to go to college.

-Parent-Teachers Association (www.pta.org)

It is important for those parents who may not be able to take time out of their busy lives to volunteer within the school to be able to communicate with the teachers and have information on what is going on in their children’s lives as well. This has become extremely easy with the introduction of technology into our everyday lives. Parents are able to email directly to their child’s teacher any time day or night, schools have a direct voice mailbox for parents to leave messages for the teacher, and the use of cell phones for immediate contact. No longer do we have to hear about a situation after the fact, but we now have the ability to know immediately. As your child becomes older, they are less likely to bring home the everyday paper that has been graded. The days of parents unaware of their child’s progress until report cards are in the past. Now, parents are able to access their child’s grades using the Internet. Parents are able to see what is going on within the school on Internet-based School Web Sites and even have homework and daily announcements sent right to their home computers or hand-held devices. Staying in touch with your children’s teacher and school has never been as easy or more accessible. Technology is not the only answer to keeping the communication lines only, School Systems across the nation are setting days on their yearly calendars for personal conferences. One school system in Virginia Beach has devoted several days of teacher-parent conferences staggered throughout the year. This is where the teacher and parent can meet during the day, at a time convenient for both parties. The meeting is spent discussing the progress the child is making. They can talk of strategies and the teachers can give parents advice on what they need to work on at home in order to assist the student in making sure they stay up to date with their studies. This allows the parents to meet the teacher and put a face and personality with a name. The teacher in return is able to speak directly to the parent and form a relationship. It gives the link needed to help the child succeed, as one principal of a school said, “In order to run an effective school, there has to be that link between the home and the school. If you don’t have that link, you’re spinning your wheels. You never make a dent in education unless the parents are involved.” (2007, The Record) Gone are the days of putting your child on the bus and seeing them when they arrive home at the end of the day. Today’s schools encourage parents to become a familiar face inside the school.

One problem however is the fact that not all parents have access to email, don’t have cell phones and a lot of single parents work hours that make it almost impossible to come in for a conference unless it is planned well in advance. One way to overcome this is through SchoolCall. This system makes it simple for schools to report student absences to parents automatically, set up web interfaces that allow teachers to set up call groups, and even voicemail for faculty. This system should be taken a step further to allow calls to a teacher’s room to be forwarded to their home. This would allow parents who can’t call during school hours to contact the teacher without the teacher’s home phone number. Often these are the ones, single parents working crazy hours who need to be able to get in contact with teachers and can’t always rely on the child to bring messages home, who need this access. While email and cell phones are great, they don’t work for everyone and we as teachers need to be aware of this and find ways around this problem.

Getting Involved

Statistics show that there is a “positive and convincing relationship between family involvement and benefits for students, including improved academic achievement.” (Henderson & Mapp 2002). When it has been shown to improve test scores with increased parental involvement schools, school boards and states have come up with ways to make sure that the parents have an opportunity to play a role in their child’s education. It is no longer just the teacher’s job to make sure your child is learning. We are now in an age where the parent’s role has become increasingly important in the type of education your child is receiving.

There are several major groups that play a large part in bridging the communication gap between parents and their children’s school. The PTA has become a powerhouse for all individual schools over the past several years. The PTA (Parent Teacher Association) is an organization on the front line of any school when it comes to parent participation. It organizes volunteers who are responsible for in school and after-school programs that have branched out from carnivals and field days to educational programs such as math and science night. In December 2003, a campaign was designed to “increase awareness of critical benefits of parental involvement and to provide parents with practical, easy ways to help their children succeed in school and in life.” (pta.org) This advertising campaign is a tool that is used to inform parents that it is vital to become involved in their children’s education. Directed by actor James Woods, the ad states that you must “Know what really matters, know about your kid’s school, and know about your kid” (pta.org) it follows with a phone number and web site that you could use to find your schools information on its PTA organization. One example of how far the PTA has come over the years is the Reflections Contest held every year. The Reflections Contest is run by local PTA volunteers within each school, which bring together teachers and parents to entice students to enter into a contest displaying their talents in many categories such as music, art, poetry and drama. Winners are judged and chosen on a local, state and then national level and each year the students are able to compete to come up with the theme for the following year. This is a great way families can become involved, work with and begin the process of communicating with the teachers and the school.

Another organization is the School Planning Council. This is made up of Administration, Teachers and Parents who meet together at the beginning of every school year to go over the curriculum. This is a very important organization that allows parents to have a voice in what their child is learning. The opportunity to participate on the Council is offered to every parent of the school their child attends. This is another bridge to enable parents to become involved with their children’s education.

Open Door Policy

Today’s school has a variety of volunteer positions that enable parents to become a part of the school day. This has come into play on a major scale with the “No Child Left Behind Act of 2001” (NCLB) Title I of NCLB (Section 1118) “outline requirements for schools, districts, and cites to create partnerships between parents and schools. Under NCLB, schools were required to provide opportunities for parent involvement” (Vaden-Kiernan 2002-03) Teachers asked parents to come into the class and volunteer, they encouraged parents to come in and help with all of the day to day activities and schools have begun opening their doors. Parents can come into the class and help out with tasks that take up teacher’s instruction time. For example, parents can help the teacher with copying papers, filing, and grading so that the instructional time for teachers will not be cut short with non-teaching tasks and enables the teacher to concentrate on teaching. Principals play a vital role in allowing open door policies within the schools so that parent involvement is able to happen. Principals give the face to the school as a friendly family environment. If a parent feels wanted, it is more likely that they will want to return to that environment. And studies showed that it is possible that “higher parent involvement encourages schools to communicate better with parents.” (Vaden-Kiernan 2002-03)

Conclusion

A child’s destiny should not be determined by the neighborhood a child lives in, composition of the child’s family, or the child’s circumstances. Each and every child should be given the same equal opportunity to achieve excellence. Teachers should view every child as a child that is capable of learning. The responsibility of instilling the value of learning is placed not only on the parents, but the teachers, administrators, school board officials, and every other adult that has a part in a child’s life.

Communication is key when meeting the needs of all learners. Today’s school systems are finding a variety of ways to improve communication between parents and their schools. Schools are improving parental information of how their child develops. Schools are giving information pertaining to the developmental processes and the expectations of the child, according to grade level, through the literature available to all parents. Schools are keeping lines of communication open. They are making teachers available and more accessible along with incorporating technology, which enables easier access for parents to communicate with their schools and encouraging parent involvement with an abundance of programs for parents to become involved. Every child benefits when there is an established and comfortable line of communication between parents and the school.

Thoughts

Take a look at the following resource:  Which challenge would you like to learn more about?

10 Major Challenges Facing Public Schools

https://www.publicschoolreview.com/blog/10-major-challenges-facing-public-schools

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Hot Topics/Home Environment. (2020, September 30). Wikibooks, The Free Textbook Project. Retrieved 19:28, February 11, 2021 from https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_Education/Hot_Topics/Home_Environment&oldid=3744188.

Social and Cultural Foundations of American Education/Relationships/Communication. (2010, March 28). Wikibooks, The Free Textbook Project. Retrieved 19:30, February 11, 2021 from https://en.wikibooks.org/w/index.php?title=Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_Education/Relationships/Communication&oldid=1745354.

5

What is Taught?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

What is Taught?

Curriculum requires us to keep instruction in mind. Instruction is the way curriculum is taught. Curriculum focuses on learning goals, (Outcomes, Standards, Benchmarks) while instruction focuses on the “how” or the way teachers will help students meet these goals. In this chapter, the focus will be on how curriculum is defined as well as taught.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Identify curriculum standards and how they are used to plan lessons

- Describe how educators can differentiate curriculum to meet student needs

- Name the major subject-matter areas taught in elementary and secondary schools

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Hidden and Formal Curriculum

- Implicit and Explicit Curriculum

- Outcomes

- Standards

- Benchmarks

- Differentiation

Definitions of Curriculum

Educators define curriculum in several ways. It can refer to the subject matter taught, the planned experiences, a course of study, or what students are expected to learn. No matter the definition, an educator is bound by the subject he/she teaches and curriculum is the way that it can be organized.

Four Types of Curriculum

Explicit Curriculum (Formal)

- Material found in textbooks, teacher’s guides

- Everything that teachers are expected to teach, students are expected to learn and what schools will be held accountable for; material we assess

- Elementary curriculum heavy in language arts and math

- Middle school curriculum content places equal time on all subjects

- Junior High/High School content becomes more compartmentalize

Implicit Curriculum (Informal)

- The “hidden” information

- What children learn from the nature and organization of the school and classrooms and from the attitudes and behaviors of teachers and administrators

- Tolerance

- Study Skills

- Respect

- Organization

- Team Work

- Values

- These are learned from the way classrooms are set up, the practices used, behaviors modeled, the way material is presented, values and priorities that may be unstated, but are evident

Null Curriculum

- Topics left out of a course of study

- Sometimes what we don’t say or don’t teach, carries as strong, or stronger message than what we do teach

- BE CAREFUL!

Extra-Curricular

- Learning beyond formal studies

- No academic credit

- Extra-curricular activities are part of an effective school

- Need to reach everyone; high and low achievers; all income levels

- May be sports or clubs, organizations

Influences on Curriculum

- Education philosophies

- Textbooks

- Federal/State Government

- Local School District/School Board

- Standards and Testing

Standards in CurriculumStandards are predetermined statements of what students should know and skills they should have upon completion of an area of study.  In many states, curriculum standards are based upon common standards for the disciplines.

In 2010, many states adopted the “Common Core Standards”. These are the standards that must be met for each grade level and subject matter. You can find Arkansas’ standards on the Arkansas Department of Education website.  This is the curriculum teachers must follow. They are required to present these concepts and skills to their students. However, the way in which they present and teach this information is entirely up to them. This is where instruction comes into play. A teacher has the Academic Freedom to structure his/her classroom and learning activities in the manner they feel best in order to present the curriculum to their students and help them master it.

Curriculum DifferencesThere are many differences between what is taught in an elementary school as compared to high schools.  The following section will talk about the differences in curriculum.

Elementary Curriculum

Elementary education in the United States refers to the first seven to nine years of formal education in most jurisdictions,often in elementary schools, including middle schools. Preschool programs, which are less formal and usually not mandated by law, are generally not considered part of primary education. The first year of primary education is commonly referred to as kindergarten and begins at or around age 5 or 6. Subsequent years are usually numbered being referred to as first grade, second grade, and so forth. Elementary schools normally continue through sixth grade, which the students normally complete when they are age 11 or 12. Some elementary schools graduate after the 4th or 5th grade and transition students into a middle school.

Students may attend either a 4-year, 5-year, 6-year or 7-year public or private elementary school. Elementary school usually runs from kindergarten or 1st grade through either 4th, 5th or 6th, depending on the region. Upon successful completion of their elementary education students then proceed to middle school, also known as junior high school. Depending on the school district, some students attend separate middle schools, beginning at 6th grade and then completing at 8th grade before they transition to high school. Additionally, students may have the option of attending elementary schools that include all eight primary grades. In this case, the student will directly proceed to High School.

In most U.S. elementary schools, a class of students is assigned to a particular teacher and classroom for an entire school year. Those students will spend the vast majority of that school year together in that one classroom learning from that one teacher, and that teacher is expected to carefully supervise their students at all times (apart from lunch and recess). Well-financed schools can hire specialists to provide instruction in specific subject matter like art, music, and science; at such schools, a teacher will hand off their entire class to specialists for such units and then resume supervision of the class afterwards. This is distinct from the course model followed at the middle school, high school, and college levels, in which students enroll in various courses each semester which are usually taught in different classrooms by different teachers, and therefore must race from one classroom to the next during the school day.

Secondary Curriculum

Secondary education is often divided into two phases, middle/junior high school and high school. Students are usually given more independence, moving to different classrooms for different subjects, and being allowed to choose some of their class subjects (electives).

“Middle school” (or “junior high school”) has a variable range between districts. It usually includes seventh and eighth grades and occasionally also includes one or more of the sixth, ninth, and very occasionally fifth grades as well. High school (occasionally senior high school) includes grades 9 through 12. Students in these grades are commonly referred to as freshmen (grade 9), sophomores (grade 10), juniors (grade 11) and seniors (grade 12). At the high school level, students generally take a broad variety of classes without specializing in any particular subject, with the exception of vocational schools. Students are generally required to take a broad range of mandatory subjects, but may choose additional subjects (“electives”) to fill out their required hours of learning. High school grades normally are included in a student’s official transcript, e.g. for college admission. Official transcripts usually include the ninth grade, whether it is taught in a middle school or a high school.

Each state sets minimum requirements for how many years of various mandatory subjects are required; these requirements vary widely, but generally include 2–4 years of each of: Science, Mathematics, English, Social sciences, Physical education; some years of a foreign language and some form of art education are often also required, as is a health curriculum in which students learn about anatomy, nutrition, first aid, sexuality, drug awareness, and birth control. In many cases, however, options are provided for students to “test out” of this requirement or complete independent study to meet it.

Many high schools provide Honors, Advanced Placement (AP) or International Baccalaureate (IB) courses. These are special forms of honors classes where the curriculum is more challenging and lessons more aggressively paced than standard courses. Honors, AP or IB courses are usually taken during the 11th or 12th grade of high school, but may be taken as early as 9th grade. Some international schools offer international school leaving qualifications, to be studied for and awarded instead of or alongside of the high school diploma, Honors, Advanced Placement, or International Baccalaureate. Regular honors courses are more intense and faster paced than typical college preparatory courses. AP and IB on the other hand, are college-level classes

Educators know every student is different and educators need to try and “reach” every student. The choice of teaching methods used will depend on each student and the material to be taught. Always consider what will be the best way for students to receive and process the information.

We all have recognized that our students will be unique and each will have their own interests, needs, abilities and motivation.  As educators, we have to find a way to reach all of them and address as many of these issues as we can.  In the next section, this will be addressed.

What has been the biggest change in school curriculum in the 21st Century?

1. Decrease in teaching history

2. Increase in teaching science

3. Widespread use of technology

4. Emphasis on collaborative skills

5. All of the above

InstructionWhile teachers have little to no control over the formal curriculum, they have a wide range of options when it comes to instruction.  Instruction refers to the way in which we present curriculum to the students. Instruction can lean towards student-centered or teacher-centered.  This section will give examples of each.

Teacher Centered

- Teacher is responsible for planning learning activities.

- Passive; students sit and listen as students talk “at” them. (Direct Instruction)

- Teacher creates all of the guidelines for both behavior and work done in the classroom,

- Classroom organization is determined by the teacher.

- All learning goals are determined by the teacher.

Student-Centered Instruction

- Students have input into learning activities.

- Instruction and learning activities are tailored to meet students’ learning needs and interests.

- Students have input into classroom guidelines and organization .

- Students are also able to set learning goals for themselves in conjunction with learning goals set by the teacher.

The goal is to help students learn, and teachers need to find the strategies that work best for students.  A combination of teacher-centered and student-centered seems to work well in many classrooms.  Remember that students have a developmental need to have control over themselves and their world, thus giving them the power to make decisions regarding their learning increases motivation, focus and further helps to develop a love of learning.

One instructional strategy has supported many teachers in their efforts to meet the learning needs of students is “Differentiated Instruction.” While it takes some work in the beginning, once you have a “toolbox” of activities and lessons it is much easier to implement.

Differentiated Instruction refers to our use of a variety of teaching strategies in order to deliver information to our students. It also means using a variety of different activities to help reinforce that information. We may use direct instruction, we may have them watch a video, we may have them create a project or conduct an experiment. The idea is that we vary our teaching strategies in order to meet the needs of our students.

Watch the following video.  How might you describe this to someone else?

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/introductiontoeducation/?p=38

Areas to Differentiate

A teacher can differentiate content, product, process, or the learning environment.

- Content (What students learn.)

- Process (How students learn it.)

- Products (What students produce.)

- Learning Environment/ Affect (Environment in which they learn.)

- Assessment (Evidence we use to determine what students are learning.)

Along with varying our instruction and student’s products, we also vary our assessments.  So many teachers are “hung up” on tests and they are not the best way to assess.  Many of these “products” you ask students to produce can be used as assessments.  Using these will also be a more accurate measure, in many cases, of what a student has learned over a written test you may give them.

Planning for Instruction

When teachers plan classroom activities, they want to plan with the begin in mind.  When teachers follow this practice, they begin planning with the standard they are teaching, in other words, what they want the students to learn.  Teachers then plan how they will assess that learning, and finally plan the learning activities for this particular concept.  Simply put:

1. Identify desired results (Standard)

2. Determine acceptable evidence  (Assessment)

3. Plan learning experiences and instruction

When objectives, learning activities and assessments relate directly to standards, they will have “Instructional Alignment”.  All of the lessons should be instructionally aligned.

Let’s look at various strategies for instruction.  Some strategies are better suited to the content being taught than others.  Varying the strategies you use will keep students engaged, interested, and increase the potential for learning.

Learning Centers

Areas set up in the classroom with learning activities directed at a specific concept.  Learning centers can be set up to reinforce skills previously learned, or to help students internalize new concepts.  For example, the learning centers could be used to “fill in” when students have idle time. If they are finished with work, they can go to the centers and work with concepts they have previously been exposed to.   You may have a science center, a creative art center, and maybe a language center.  You can rotate activities, thus giving students more exposure to concepts being taught, as well as helping to engage students in a time of the day when idle hands could cause behavior concerns.

The other way learning centers can be used is to teach a concept.  For example, if you wanted to teach the concepts of magnets you would have a variety of centers set up all dealing with magnets.  Students would move from center to center, engaging in the planned activities.  You would want to try and design the activities at the centers to tap into the various multiple intelligences.

RAFT: Role, Audience, Format, Topic

This is a writing strategy that allows for student creativity.  It can be used in a variety of ways, including as an assessment.

ROLE:  Students choose a perspective to write from.

AUDIENCE:  Students choose who they are writing to.

FORMAT:  Students choose the format for writing; letter, memo, poem, advertising ad, etc.

TOPIC: The topic they are writing on.

Here is an example that could be used:

Role:  Abraham Lincoln

Audience:  American People

Format:  Interview

Topic:  The major challenges of his presidency

In this activity, the students would have to decide what the major challenges were in his presidency and be able to explain those.  The student would also design the questions that could be used in the interview in regards to these challenges.  For some students, this would be a more engaging and interesting way to report on these versus just writing a 1000 word essay.  You will probably get more information from the student as well.

Choice Boards

- Students choose from a menu of options

- Tasks vary by process and interest

- Some anchor activities can be required of all students

- Can be used for homework, projects, and assessment, or as again, a way to fill idle time.

Here is an example that could be used for learning what verbs are:

Choose a book from the reading area and write down 10 verbs

Create a song using five verbs

Choose five verbs and illustrate them

Write a short story and identify the verbs in the story

Listen to a favorite song and identify the verbs

Draw a picture and write a short description of what is happening using at least three verbs

These are all activities that would help reinforce the idea of verbs.  Students would be able to choose which of these they would like to do.  This example has six, but many are made with nine choices.  Teachers can determine how many activities students have to complete.  The Tic-Tac-Toe choice board is set up with nine choices and students have to do three that will form a tic-tac-toe.  I have even seen teachers give extra credit if students do them all, or in Bingo terms, a “cover all”.

As stated, Choice Boards can also be used to fill in for idle moments and review a variety of concepts that are being learned.  Here is an example for older students:

Create a Venn Diagram comparing yourself and a character in To Kill a Mockingbird

Illustrate a book cover for a favorite book

Create a comic strip with seven frames that shows how the Earth’s surface has changed.

Complete the “President Map” which shows the qualifications to be President, as well as the roles of the President.

Create a game that will teach a concept from class, but requires movement

Describe 10 occupations that incorporate area, surface area, or volume. Be very specific on the job title and explain how that job uses area, SA, or volume. At least 3 sentences each.

Choice Boards give students some control over the activities you do, yet you have chosen the activities.  Always be open, however, to the student who comes to you with an idea for an activity.  Sometimes students have great ideas!

K-W-L: Know, Want to know, Learned

- When beginning a unit of study, list all the things you KNOW about the topic.

- Next, create a list of things you WANT to know about this topic.

- After the unit of study is done, create a list of what has been LEARNED.

A K-W-L can be done as a class, or each student can create their own.  There are benefits to both and your learning goals will determine which one you may use.

Always remember ALL STUDENTS CAN LEARN!! However, what they learn, how they learn it and the pace at which they learn it will vary. Under the differentiated instruction idea we are changing our instruction, our expectations and our assessments based on the needs and interests of the students.

Dig DeeperWant to read more about curriculum, take a look at the following resources:

Wexler, N. (2019) Elementary Education has Gone Terribly Wrong.

https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2019/08/the-radical-case-for-teaching-kids-stuff/592765/

Did You Get It?Quiz for this chapter

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

6

What Makes an Effective Teacher?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

What Makes an Effective Teacher?

Here’s a question:  Are you teaching if students are not learning?  Professionals have debated this idea for generations. A common definition of an effective teacher is one who impacts student learning.

If educators are tasked with helping children learn, it is important to define learning. Our brain was designed to question, explore and learn. We are born with billions of neurons just waiting to be connected.  Each experience we have, throughout our lifetime, creates connections or pathways between the neurons.   Learning begins at birth and continues throughout a lifetime.

In order for our brains to function effectively, it needs to have the following:  exercise, sleep, oxygen, hydration (water), and food.  We can have the best teacher in the world, but if the brain lacks any of these, the brain will not function at full capacity.  Think about students who do not receive enough of one or more of these.  They are at a disadvantage from the second they step into the classroom; before instruction even begins. There are many things that educators can do in schools to provide for some of these basic needs, but more importantly it is important for educators to know their students well to determine a missing piece.

There are three definitions of learning that are important to know as you define effectiveness as a teacher.

1. Learning is a change in the neuron patterns of the brain.

2. Learning is the ability to use information after a long period of disuse.

3. Learning is the ability to use information to problem solve, and/or use it in a different manner or circumstance from which it was learned.

Terry Doyle from Ferris State University says that “The one who does the work is the one who does the learning.”  Students have to put work and effort into learning the material that is presented to them.  It doesn’t just flow into the brain and stay.  The type of work and the amount of effort will vary among our students.  They will have to work harder in some areas than others; you probably already know that based on your own learning experiences.  As teachers, we have to help students discover what types of strategies will work for them.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Define learning as it relates to effectiveness as an educator

- Identify the four domains of Danielson’s Frameworks for Teaching and how they relate to teacher effectiveness

- Describe what it meant by the teacher as a “reflective decision maker”

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Reflective teaching

- Scaffolding

- Zone of Proximal Development

- Classroom management

- Engagement

What words would you use to describe an effective teacher?

An Effective teacher is__________________.

An Effective Educator Understands Learning Theories

As the brain takes in information, it will look for patterns, look for similarities and differences, look for relationships and connect the new information to what is already known.  All of these will create new brain connections and can result in learning.  The information goes into the short term memory, but in order for learning to take place it has to make the transfer to long term memory.  Here is how the cycle works:

The teacher shares knowledge the students need to learn.

The student’s short term memory is activated and records information that is important.

Neurons fire creating networks that represent the new information

If the student does not use the information, or only uses it a few times, the neuron-networks that represent that new information will break apart and be lost.

If the information is used a great deal (reviewed, applied and practices), the neuron networks form strong connections and become part of long term memory and then…

LEARNING HAS TAKEN PLACE!

You can see that the student has to be actively involved in order for learning to take place.  Our responsibility is helping them develop strategies for making this transfer from short term memory to long term memory.

A very large factor in learning is repetition.  Students have to interact with the information over and over. Many of you do not sing your ABCs every day, but if you were asked to, you probably could. The reason is that you really did learn it several years ago.  The information made the transfer from short term memory to long term memory.  Just reading an assignment, or listening to a lecture, is not enough to learn the information.  We have to spend time interacting with the material and in a variety of ways.

First off, we have to be certain the information we are trying to learn is accurate.  Neurons in the brain fire for misinformation as well as accurate information.  If you don’t understand an idea, or have questions, be sure to ask them.  Do not assume.  If you do not ask, you run the risk of studying information that is not correct or of doing something incorrectly.  Always be sure the information you are studying is accurate, and that your students understand this idea as well.

Second, students need to take the time to reflect.  Ask how the new information connects to what you already know.  Search your experiences and see if there is one that connects to this idea.  You can use it to help assimilate the new information.  Look back over how this information was presented to you and see if there are any connections there that will help you remember.  Ponder how you might use this new information.  Some students find keeping a reflective journal an effective strategy for them to use when processing new information.  A journal is a tool that will allow them to “think about” and reflect on the information.  Keep in mind, this may not be effective for everyone.

Another tool for transferring information from the short term memory to the long term memory is review.  Our review has to begin immediately.  We have to look the information over and create strategies for studying.  These will vary greatly among our students.  We have to help them discover what learning tools work for them.  For example, let’s look at learning spelling words.  We have all had the list of spelling words we needed to learn.  We all had our own way of doing it, but most of us just kept spelling the words over and over.  Again, this doesn’t work for everyone.  Others find flashcards helpful, or drawing graphs and diagrams, writing songs or poems with the concepts to be learned or creating games to play with study buddies.  Some students will highlight in their textbooks and write notes in the margins.  The bottom line is that students have to find a way to review information that works for them.  In some cases, we have to teach our students how to learn.

One review tool is a concept map.  You may also know this as a graphic organizer or web.  All of these terms refer to basically the same thing.  It is a visual organization of material.   As they create, they are interacting with the material again (repetition) and then they have a tool to use when they review the information.

Re-coding is a very effective tool in learning.  Re-coding involves writing the information you receive in your own words.  Taking notes is one way to re-code, as long as you are not copying word for word from a text or powerpoint.  Keeping a learning journal is another way to re-code information.  Re-coding allows the student to put the ideas in his/her own words and based on our own experiences with the information.  This improves learning.  Don’t memorize definitions; always read the definition and then write it out in your own words.  These are the words that you will remember and understand.  It will also help to make that transfer of information from the short term memory to the long term memory.  Once again, they are interacting with the material a second or third time and we know that repetition is a major key in learning.  These are the types of strategies you can teach your students.

Research is showing that movement is an important part of learning.  The more movement we can incorporate into a classroom, the more likely our students are to stay focused.  This is especially important for younger children who have very limited attention spans, and are naturally wired to move.  Students who appear active, or never seem to be able to sit still, are often moving to help keep themselves focused.  How many of you doodle while listening to someone talk, or click a pen or tap a foot?  This type of “fidgeting”, whether you realize it or not, is helping your brain to stay focused on the task.  For students who are high in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, they need to move.   However, students are often punished in class for the very behaviors that will help them learn.  Technology has also robbed our children of opportunities to move, yet it is a necessary part of our development.

“A child’s mental development is based in part on his/her early motor development.  The brain begins to wire up its ability to process information by wiring up the body’s systems of balance, coordination, vestibular and motor development. What makes us move is also what makes us think.  As the brain and body begin to work together to process motor sequences and patterns such as rolling over, crawling, walking and jumping, the brain creates the pathways used for processing sequences in reading and math.”

“Movement is the most important thing you do to increase learning.  Psychologists and neurologists have been saying for years that what we learn comes through our senses and that we learn through movement.  Yet at the age of four, five or six the child is placed in an equivalent of a three-foot cubicle and expected to perform.  (Steele, 1976.)”

Think about these things.  The basic movements we learn as children, rolling, crawling/walking and jumping correspond with the way information travels in the brain:

- side to side across the corpus callosum

- back to front across the motor cortex

- up and down from the bottom to the top of the brain

Sometimes we have to “jump start” the brain by doing the exercises I mentioned earlier.  You can see how those simple movements can help get the brain “talking to itself.”

We can support learning by incorporating movement into our classrooms.  Exercise balls have been shown to be very effective for children who have the need to move.  The balls are used in place of a chair.  The small movement that is needed to keep balanced on the ball is enough to meet the child’s need to move.  They can also move a bit on the ball within their defined space.  Allowing children to doodle or fidget also helps. Some students even benefit from a “fidget.”  This is some object that students can “play with” while they are listening, studying and working.  For example, a cushy ball to squeeze, or a small ball to roll around in the hand.

You also want to think about activities you can put into place that will allow students to move.  Using a velcro dart board with math facts on is one way to get students moving.  They throw the velcro dart and have to solve the problem it lands on.  Labeling a beach ball with the elements of a story and tossing the ball around.  The elements their hands land on when catching it are the elements they have to explain or give examples of.  These types of things will increase the chances that this information will be transferred to long term memory.

An Effective Educator Understands About Mindset

There is another significant factor in learning and that is an individual’s mindset.  Carol Dweck’s research identified two types of mindsets:  a growth mindset and a fixed mindset.  These mindsets influence how students view themselves as learners and influences the amount of effort they put into their studies.

Growth mindset individuals believe their brains are malleable and intelligence and abilities can be enhanced through hard work and practice. They believe only time will tell how “smart” they are.  Fixed mindset individuals see intelligence as fixed; some people are “smart” and others are not “smart.”  They believe that no amount of work or study will improve their abilities or increase their knowledge.  Both of these mindsets are reflected in the performance of students.  Let’s look at these ideas side by side.

GROWTH MINDSET

FIXED MINDSET

Intelligence can be changed

See failure as something to grow from

Practice and effort will improve abilities

Risks are necessary for growth

Effort is necessary for growth and success

Individuals know they can improve

Take criticism as a way to learn and grow

Learning is paramount!

Intelligence is fixed and unchanging

Putting in effort won’t make a difference

View themselves as “not smart”

Avoid challenges

Make excuses and avoid difficulties

Believe it’s important to “look smart”

Take criticism personally

You can see how the way in which you view yourself will impact your ideas about learning and thus your practices.  It’s vital that we help students develop a growth mindset if they are going to be successful.

Let’s look at a basic principle of learning.  In order to learn we have to take a risk and in order to take that risk we have to feel safe both physically and emotionally.  Most of our students feel physically safe in their classrooms (there are always those exceptions), but far fewer feel emotionally safe.  They don’t participate in discussions, answer questions or sometimes even do their work out of the fear of being wrong.   Most of these students will have a fixed mindset.  They don’t see themselves as learners and they don’t believe that any amount of work will make a difference.  They often shut down and do nothing because it is emotionally safer that way.  It is safer to do nothing than to do something and be wrong, which means they then deal with the humiliation of failure.  They have often experienced a great deal of failure in the past and they have now “shut down.” If someone does not step in and help them experience success, they are doomed.  It’s never too late to help a student develop a growth mindset, but it will take time, patience and dedication.

Watch the following video about Mindset to learn more:

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/introductiontoeducation/?p=34

If we have any hope of these students into productive students who participate in discussions, complete work and make academic progress we have to first help them experience success.  This requires a one-on-one conversation to discover the reason why these things are happening.  We then have to work to resolve the issues the student has.  They may mean we provide extra help to the student individually, alter assignments for a period of time, work with study buddies, or whatever it will take for the student to experience just a small amount of success.  With each new success comes more confidence.  We then continue to build on that success.  We have to continue to challenge them, but keep the support systems in place so they can continue to be successful.  Over time we will be able to remove some of those supports, but in the process they will be gaining strategies and tools they can continue to use in their academic endeavors.  They will also have gained confidence and most of them will have changed their mindset to one that more closely resembles a growth mindset.  This will make all the difference in their learning!

Learning is a complex process and we have to understand what is involved, what works for our students, the challenges they face, the emotional baggage they enter our classrooms with, as well as understand them and find ways to help them be successful.  We have to be willing to go above and beyond, change the rules and expectations now and then, and get rid of the notion of punishment and strive to teach!

An Effective Educator Understands How to Reflect

As a teacher learns about how children learn, he/she can reflect on how he/she is doing to help children learn.  Reflective teaching is one way that an educator can systematically reflect on data (test scores, assignments, informal questions) to determine if he/she was successful.  It is important to think about all that goes into teaching a lesson so that reflection can be centered on what might be going well and what might need adjustment.

Danielson’s Framework for Teaching

Dr. Charlotte Danielson (2011) worked with others and current research to define a framework to identify a teacher’s responsibilities. Although they are not the only possible description of practice, these responsibilities seek to define what teachers should know and be able to do in the exercise of their profession.

In this framework, the complex activity of teaching is divided into 22 components clustered into the following 4 domains of teaching responsibility:

- Domain 1: Planning and Preparation

- Domain 2: The Classroom Environment

- Domain 3: Instruction

- Domain 4: Professional Responsibilities

Each component defines a distinct aspect of a domain; two to five elements describe a specific feature of a component. For example, Domain 2, The Classroom Environment, contains five components. Component 2a is Creating an Environment of Respect and Rapport, which consists of two elements: “Teacher interaction with students” and “Student interactions with other students.” This component applies in some manner to all settings, as do all the other components. But although teachers at all levels and in all subjects establish rapport with and convey respect for their students, they do so in different ways.

Danielson’s Framework for Teaching (FfT) is one way that educators in many states have adopted a common language to talk about the responsibilities in the classroom.  States such as Arkansas and Louisiana have adopted Danielson’s work in order to evaluate a teacher’s success in the classroom.

Thoughts

Think about how you describe an effective teacher.  Would these four domains capture everything you are thinking about?

A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://uark.pressbooks.pub/introductiontoeducation/?p=34

What Makes an Effective Teacher?

In this chapter, we reflected on three things that effective educators need to understand.  They need to understand how children learn and grow, they have to learn about the impact of mindset on learning, and finally they need to know how to reflect on their own practice.  With these practices in place, educators will be on the road to teacher expertise.

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

Danielson, C. (2011). Frameworks for Teaching.  Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

7

What is a Positive Classroom Environment?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

What is a positive classroom environment?

An excerpt from a professional journal kept by Kelvin Lee Seifer when teaching kindergarten:

November 14th: Today my student Carol sat in the circle, watching others while we all played Duck, Duck, Goose (in this game, one student is outside the circle, tags another student who then chases the first person around the circle). Carol’s turn had already passed. Apparently she was bored now, because she flopped on her back, smiling broadly, rolling around luxuriously on the floor in the path of the other runners. Several classmates noticed her, smiled or giggled, began flopping down as well. One chaser tripped over a “flopper.”Sit up, Carol,” said I, the ever-vigilant teacher. “You’re in the way.” But no result. I repeated twice more, firmly; then moved to pick her up.Instantly Carol ran to the far side of the gym, still smiling broadly. Then her best friend ran off with her. Now a whole new game was launched, or really two games: “Run-from-the-teacher” and “Enjoy-being-watched-by-everybody.” A lot more exciting, unfortunately, than Duck, Duck, Goose!

An excerpt from Kelvin’s same journal several years later, when he was teaching math in high school:

March 4th: The same four students sat in the back again today, as usual. They seem to look in every direction except at me, even when I’m explaining material that they need to know. The way they smile and whisper to each other, it seems almost like they are “in love” with each other, though I can’t be sure who loves whom the most. Others—students not part of the foursome—seem to react variously. Some seem annoyed, turn the other way, avoid talking with the group, and so on. But others seem almost envious—as if they want to be part of the “in” group, too, and were impressed with the foursome’s ability to get away with being inattentive and almost rude. Either way, I think a lot of other students are being distracted.Twice during the period today, I happened to notice members of the group passing a note, and then giggling and looking at me. By the end, I had had enough of this sort of thing, so I kept them in briefly after class and asked one of them to read the note. They looked a bit embarrassed and hesitant, but eventually one of them opened the note and read it out loud. “Choose one,” it said. “Mr. Seifert looks 1) old ____, 2) stupid____, or 3)clueless____.”

Kelvin’s experiences in managing these very different classrooms taught him what every teacher knows or else quickly learns: management matters a lot. But his experiences also taught that management is about more than correcting the misbehaviors of individuals, more than just “discipline.” Classroom management is also about “orchestrating” or coordinating entire sets or sequences of learning activities so that everyone, misbehaving or not, learns as easily and productively as possible. Educators sometimes, therefore, describe good classroom management as the creation of a positive learning environment, because the term calls attention to the totality of activities and people in a classroom, as well as to their goals and expectations about learning (Jones & Jones, 2007). When Kelvin was teaching, he used both terms almost interchangeably, though in speaking of management he more often was referring to individual students’ behavior and learning, and in using the term learning environment he more often meant the overall “feel” of the class as a whole.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Identify basic classroom management principles for learning and academic achievement

- Name several steps to respond to conflicts and behavior issues in the classroom

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Classroom management

- Sequencing

- Transitions

- Pacing

- Classroom conflict resolution

Why Classroom Management Matters

Managing the learning environment is both a major responsibility and an on-going concern for every teacher, even for those with years of experience (Good & Brophy, 2002). There are several reasons. In the first place, a lot goes on in classrooms simultaneously, even when students seem to be doing only “one” task together. Twenty-five students may all be working on a sheet of math problems, but look more closely: several may be stuck on a particular problem, but each for different reasons. A few others have worked only the first problem or two and are now chatting quietly with each other instead of continuing. Still others have finished and are wondering what to do next. At any one moment each student needs something different—different information, different hints, different kinds of encouragement. The diversity increases even more if the teacher deliberately assigns multiple activities to different groups or individuals (for example, if some are doing a reading assignment while others do the math problems).

Another reason that managing the environment is challenging is because a teacher can never predict everything that will happen in a class. A well-planned lesson may fall flat on its face, or take less time than you expect, and you find yourself improvising to fill class time. On the other hand an unplanned moment may become a wonderful, sustained exchange among students; so you have to drop previous plans and “go with the flow” of their discussion. Interruptions happen continually: a fire drill, a quick drop-in visit from another teacher or from the principal, a call on the intercom from the office. An activity may turn out well, but also end up rather differently than you intended; you therefore have to decide how, if at all, to adjust the next day to allow for this surprise.

A third reason for the importance of management is that students form opinions and perceptions about your teaching that may coincide neither with your own nor with other students’. What seems to you like encouragement of a shy student may seem to the student herself like “forced participation.” A more eager, outgoing classmate watching your special effort to encourage the shy student, however, may not see you as either encouraging or coercing, but as overlooking or ignoring other students who are already more willing to participate. The variety of perceptions can lead to surprises in students’ responses to you—most often small ones, but occasionally more major.

At the broadest, society-wide level, management challenges teachers because public schooling is not voluntary, and students’ presence in a classroom is therefore not a sign, in and of itself, that they wish to be there. Students’ presence is instead just a sign that an opportunity exists for teachers to motivate students to learn. Many students, of course, do enjoy learning and being in school—but not all. Others do enjoy school, but primarily because teachers have worked hard to make classroom life pleasant and interesting. They become motivated because you have successfully created a positive learning environment and have sustained it through skillful management.

Fortunately it is possible to earn this sort of commitment from students, and this chapter describes some ways of doing so. We begin with some ways of preventing management problems in the first place by increasing students’ focus on learning. The methods include the arrangement of classroom space, the establishment of procedures, routines, and rules, and communicating the importance of learning both to students and to parents. After these prevention oriented discussions, we look at ways of refocusing students when and if their minds or actions do stray from the tasks at hand. As you probably know from your own experience as a student, bringing students back on task can happen in many ways, ways that vary widely in the energy and persistence required of the teacher. We try to indicate some of this diversity, but because of space limitations and because of the richness of classroom life, we cannot describe them all.

Preventing Management Problems by Focusing Students on Learning

The easiest management problems to solve are ones that do not happen in the first place! You can help to prevent problems even before the first day of school by arranging classroom furniture and materials in ways that make learning as easy to focus on as possible. Later, during the first few days, you can establish procedures and rules that support a focus on learning even more.

Arranging Classroom Space

Viewed broadly, it may be tempting to think that classrooms are arranged in similar ways, but there are actually important alternative arrangements to consider. Variations happen because of grade level, the subjects taught, the teacher’s philosophy of education, and of course the size of the room and the furniture available. Whatever the arrangement that you choose, it should help students to focus on learning tasks as much as possible and minimize the chances of distractions. Beyond these basic principles, however, the “best” arrangement depends on what your students need and on the kind of teaching that you prefer and feel able to provide (Bothmer, 2003; Nations & Boyett, 2002). Here are some ideas to help choose among your options. In considering them (and before moving too much furniture around your room!), you might want to try experimenting with spatial arrangements “virtually” by using one of the computer programs available on the Internet.

Displays and Wall Space

All classrooms have walls, of course, and how you fill or use them can affect the mood or feeling of a classroom. More displays make the room more interesting and can be used to reinforce curriculum goals and display (and hence recognize) students’ work. But too many displays can also make a room seem “busy” or distracting as well as physically smaller; and they can also be more work to maintain. If you are starting a new school year, then, there is usually a need to decorate some of the wall or bulletin board space, but no urgent need to fill it all. Leaving some open space can give flexibility to respond to curriculum or learning needs that emerge after the year is underway. The same advice applies for displays that are especially high maintenance, such as aquariums, pets, and plants. These can serve wonderfully as learning aids, but do not have to be in place on the first day of school. Not only the students, but also you yourself, may already have enough distractions to cope with at that time.

In the elementary years, we tend to find classrooms filled with displays.  The walls are covered and sometimes there are even things hanging from the ceiling.  All of these things will draw students attention, and very well  may draw their attention away from you and from their work.  There is too much to attend to and even a typically developing child may have difficulty deciding on where to focus their attention.  For a child who may have any type of sensory concern or attention difficulty, they may now be extremely overwhelmed and have great difficulty “paying attention” to what you want them to focus on.  Consider carefully in the elementary years how much you may decorate a classroom.

In our secondary classrooms, we sometimes see the opposite happen; there is a lack of color and visual display.  As with our younger children, be sure you do not overwhelm the classroom, but be sure you try to add color and displays that support learning and will add to the overall comfort of the classroom.

Computers in the Classroom

If you are like the majority of teachers, you may have one or more computers in your classroom, and their placement may be pre-determined by location of power and cable outlets. If so, you need to think about computer placement early in the process of setting up a room. Once the location of computers is set, locations for desks, high-usage shelves, and other moveable items can be chosen more sensibly—in general so as to minimize distractions to students and to avoid unnecessary traffic congestion.

Visibility of and Interactions with Students

Learning is facilitated if the furniture and space allow you to see all students and to interact with them from a comfortable distance. Usually this means that the main, central part of the room—where desks and tables are usually located—needs to be as open and as spacious as possible. While this idea may seem obvious, enacting it can sometimes be challenging in practice if the room itself is small or unusually shaped. In classrooms with young students (kindergarten), furthermore, open spaces tend to allow, if not invite, movement of children that is longer and faster—a feature that you may consider either constructive or annoying, depending on your educational goals and the actual level of activity that occurs.

Spatial Arrangements Unique To Grade Levels or Subjects

Some room arrangements depend significantly on the grade level or subject area of the class. If you teach in elementary school, for example, you may need to think about where students can keep their daily belongings, such as coats and lunches. In some schools, these can be kept outside the classroom—but not in all schools. Some subjects and grade levels, furthermore, lend themselves especially well to small group interaction, in which case you might prefer not to seat students in rows, but around several small-group tables or work areas. The latter arrangement is sometimes preferred by elementary teachers, but is also useful in high schools wherever students need lots of counter space, as in some shops courses, or wherever they need to interact, as in English as a Second Language courses (McCafferty, Jacobs, & Iddings, 2006). The key issue in deciding between tables and rows, however, is not grade level or subject as such, but the amount of small group interaction you want to encourage, compared to the amount of whole-group instruction. As a rule, tables make talking with peers easier, and rows make listening to the teacher more likely and group work slightly more awkward to arrange.

Keep in mind that not all of us function well in group settings.  Grouping children in desk clusters, or at tables, may be productive for some of our students.  Others, however, may work more effectively if they sit alone.  Please consider offering both options to your students.  If a child wishes to sit on their own, allow them to do so.  If you are going to do any type of group work, you can easily assign them to a group of students for the activity.

Ironically, some teachers experience challenges about room arrangement without even having a room of their own, because they must “float” or move among other teachers’ rooms. “Floating” is especially likely among specialized teachers (e.g. music teachers in elementary schools, who move from class to class) and in schools that are short on classrooms overall. Floating can sometimes be annoying to the teacher, though it actually also has advantages, such as not having to take responsibility for how other teachers’ rooms are arranged). If you find yourself floating, it helps to consider a few key strategies, such as:

- consider using a permanent cart to move crucial supplies from room to room;

- make sure that every one of your rooms has an overhead projector (do not count on using chalkboards in other teachers’ rooms);

- talk to the other teachers about having at least one shelf or corner in each room designated for your exclusive use.

Establishing Daily Procedures and Routines

Procedures or routines are specific ways of doing common, repeated classroom tasks or activities. Examples include checking daily attendance, dealing with students who arrive late, or allowing students to use the bathroom during class or go to their lockers to get materials which they forgot to bring. Procedures also include ways of turning in or retrieving daily homework (e.g. putting it on a designated shelf at a particular time), or of gaining the teacher’s attention during quiet seat work (e.g. raising your hand and waiting), or of choosing and starting a “free choice” activity after completing a classroom assignment.

Procedures serve the largely practical purpose of making activities and tasks flow smoothly and efficiently—a valuable and necessary purpose in classrooms, where the actions of many people have to be coordinated within limited amounts of time. As such, procedures are more like social conventions than like moral expectations. They are not primarily about what is ethically right or ethically desirable to do (Turiel, 2006).[4] Most procedures or routines can be accomplished in more than one way, with only minor differences in success at the outcomes. There is more than one way, for example, for the procedure of taking attendance: the teacher could call the roll, delegate a student to call the roll, or simply note students’ presence on a seating chart. Each variation accomplishes essentially the same task, and the choice among them may therefore be less important than the fact that the class coordinates its actions somehow, by committing to some sort of choice.

For teachers, of course, an initial task is to establish procedures and routines in the first place. Because of the conventional quality of procedures, some teachers find that it works well simply to announce and explain key procedures without inviting much discussion from students (“Here is how we will choose partners for the group work”). Other teachers, however, prefer to invite input from students when creating procedures (asking “What do you feel is the best way for students to get my attention during a quiet reading time?”). Both approaches have advantages as well as disadvantages. Simply announcing key procedures saves time and ensures consistency in case you are teaching more than one class (as you would in high school), but it creates a bigger responsibility to choose procedures that are truly reasonable and practical. On the other hand, inviting students’ input can help students to become aware of and committed to procedures, but at the cost of taking more time to establish them, and at the risk of creating confusion if you teach multiple classes, each of which adopts different procedures. Whatever approach you choose, you and the students of course have to take into account the procedures or rules imposed by the school or school district as a whole. A school may have a uniform policy or expectation about how to record daily attendance, for example, and that policy may determine, either partly or completely, how you take attendance with your particular students.

Establishing Classroom Rules

Unlike procedures or routines, rules express standards of behavior for which individual students need to take responsibility. Although they may help in ensuring the practical efficiency of classroom tasks, they are really about encouraging students to be personally responsible for learning, as well as for behaving decently and respectfully with each other.

Most educational experts recommend keeping the number of rules to a minimum in order to make them easier to remember (Thorson, 2003; Brophy, 2003). Another feature is that they are stated in positive terms (“Do X…”) rather than negative terms (“Do not do Y…”), a strategy that emphasizes and clarifies what students should do rather than what they should avoid. A third feature is that each rule actually covers a collection of more specific behaviors. The rule “Bring all materials to class,” for example, potentially covers bringing pencils, paper, textbooks, homework papers, and permission slips—depending on the situation. As a result of being stated somewhat generally, rules contain a degree of ambiguity that sometimes requires interpretation. Infractions may occur, that is, that are marginal or “in a grey area,” rather than clearcut. A student may bring a pen, for example, but the pen may not work properly, and you may therefore wonder whether this incident is really a failure to follow the rule, or just an unfortunate (and in this case minor) fault of the pen manufacturer.  For myself, it is not the student’s fault if the pen fails to work.  They have fulfilled the requirement of “bringing materials to class”.  (As a side note, always have extra pens and pencils available for students for just such incidents.)

As with classroom procedures, rules can be planned either by the teacher alone, or by the teacher with advice from students. The arguments for each approach are similar to the arguments for procedures: rules “laid on” by the teacher are quicker and easier to present to students,  but rules influenced by the students may be supported more fully by the students. Because rules focus strongly on personal responsibility, however, there is a stronger case for involving students in making classroom rules than in making classroom procedures (Brookfield, 2006; Kohn, 2006). In any case the question of who plans classroom rules is not necessarily an either/or choice. It is possible in principle to impose certain rules on students (for example, “Always be polite to each other”) but let the students determine the consequences for violations of certain rules (for example, “If a student is discourteous to a classmate, he/she must apologize to the student in writing”). Some mixture of influences is probably inevitable, in fact, if only because of your own moral commitments as a teacher and because the school itself is likely to have rules of its own (like “No smoking in the school” or “Always walk in the hallways”). A classroom set of rules therefore might need to refer to and honor this broader source of rules somehow, if only by including a classroom rule stating something like “Obey all school rules.”

School age children are in the stage where they need to have control over their world and make real world decisions.  Allowing them to make the classroom rules meets those emotional needs.  Students will also follow the guidelines and support each other more when they have created them. The following comes from an example by an elementary classroom teacher:

“In my classrooms, on the first day, we talked about being together for the year and we had to set some guidelines for our behavior to help everyone learn and stay safe.  I would ask them what types of things we needed to do in order for everyone to stay safe, keep our materials safe, and learn.

I asked children to give me their ideas and I wrote them on the board.  Any idea was acceptable in this stage, even if it was something I didn’t want to see as a guideline. Once we had all of the ideas, we then reviewed each of them.  We asked three questions:

1. Will this guideline keep us safe?

2. Will this guideline keep our materials from being broken, destroyed, etc.?

3. Will this guideline help us learn?

If we answered “No” to any of these questions, we eliminated the idea.  What was left we used as our guidelines.  Sometimes we needed to re-word the statement, or I suggested an addition to it.  Understand that ultimately you have the final decision, but you will be surprised at what students are able to devise on their own.  Our guidelines were also fluid.  If we found a need down the road for a new guideline, we added it to our list.

Once we had our statements, I wrote them on a large piece of paper with the heading, “Staying Safe and Loving to Learn:  Our Class Guidelines”, and then each student signed the paper.  I signed it also as I was a part of the learning environment and I was expected to follow the same guidelines.  We hung this in the room for all to see.  Over time, you will find students referring to this document and guiding their classmates in appropriate behaviors.”

Teachers can co-create guidelines described earlier to help develop positive social skills, as well as positive and effective learning skills; they are not grounds for punishment.  If the guideline is to “Respect everyone we come in contact with,” then a student who is disrespectful should not be punished.  A teacher would need to talk with the student and let him/her know how their words or actions were not respectful; talk about what should have been said or done, and then allow the student to make the decision to apologize, or have them ask the person who was “wronged” what they can do to make the situation better.  Handling this incident in this manner requires the student to take responsibility for their actions and learn how to display the appropriate behaviors; punishment does not do this.

Pacing and Structuring Lessons and Activities

One of the best ways to prevent management problems is by pacing and structuring lessons or activities as smoothly and continuously as possible. Reaching this goal depends on three major strategies:

- selecting tasks or activities at an appropriate level of difficulty for your students.  (This means there may be multiple activities to meet the varying abilities of your students.)

- providing a moderate level of structure or clarity to students about what they are supposed to do, especially during transitions between activities, and

- keeping alert to the flow and interplay of behaviors for the class as a whole and for individuals within it.

Each of these strategies presents its own special challenges to teachers, but also its own opportunities for helping students to learn.

Choosing Tasks at an Appropriate Level of Difficulty

As experienced teachers know and as research has confirmed, students are most likely to engage with learning when tasks are of moderate difficulty, neither too easy nor too hard and therefore neither boring nor frustrating (Britt, 2005). Finding the right level of difficulty, however, can sometimes be a challenge if you have little experience in teaching a particular grade level or curriculum, or even if a class is simply new to you and in this sense “unknown.” Whether familiar to you or not, members of any class are likely to have diverse abilities and readiness, and this fact alone makes it harder to determine what level of difficulty is appropriate. A common strategy for dealing with these ambiguities is to begin units, lessons, or projects with tasks or content that is relatively easy and familiar, and then gradually introduce more difficult material or tasks until students seem challenged, but not overwhelmed. Using this strategy gives the teacher a chance to observe and diagnose students’ learning needs before adjusting content, and gives students a chance to orient themselves to the teacher’s expectations and the topic of study without becoming stressed or frustrated prematurely. Later in a unit, lesson, or project, students are then in a better position to deal with more difficult tasks or content (Van Merrionboer, 2003). The principle seems to help even with “authentic” learning projects—ones that resemble real-world activities of students (such as learning to drive an automobile), and that present a variety of complex tasks simultaneously. Even in those cases it helps for the teacher to isolate and focus on the simplest subtasks first (such as “put the key in the ignition”) and only move to harder tasks later (such as parallel parking).

Sequencing instruction is only a partial solution to finding the best “level” of instruction, because it still does not deal with lasting differences among students as individuals. The core challenge to teachers is to fully individualize or differentiate instruction: to tailor instruction or activities not only to the class as a group, but to the differences among members of the class? One way to approach this problem is to plan different content or activities for different students or groups of students. While one group works on Task A, another group works on Task B; one group works on relatively easy math problems, for example, while another works on harder ones. Taken very far, managing multiple activities or tasks obviously complicates a teacher’s job, but it can and has been done by many teachers (and it also can make teaching more interesting!).

Providing Moderate Amounts of Structure and Detail

Chances are that at some point in your educational career you have asked, or at least wished, that a teacher would clarify or explain an assignment more fully, and thereby give it more structure or organization. Students’ need and desire for clarity is especially common with assignments that are by nature open-ended, such as long essays, large projects, or creative works. Simply being told to “write an essay critiquing the novel,” for example, leaves more room for uncertainty (and worry) than being given guidelines about what the essay should contain, what topics or parts it should have, and its appropriate length or style (Chesebro, 2003). Students’ need for structure and clarity varies, furthermore, not only among assignments, but among students as individuals. Some students desire it more than others, and perform especially well when provided with relatively more structure and clarity. Students with certain kinds of learning difficulties, in particular, often learn more effectively and stay on task more if provided with somewhat more explicit or detailed instructions about the specific tasks expected for assignments (Marks, 2003).

As a teacher, the challenge is to accommodate students’ need for clarity without making guidance so specific or detailed that students have little room to think for themselves. Carried to a (ridiculous) extreme, for example, a teacher can give “clear” instructions for an essay by announcing not only exactly which articles to read and cite in preparing for the essay and which topics or issues to cover, but even the wording of the key sentences in their essays. This much specificity may reduce students’ uncertainties and make the teacher’s task of evaluating the essays relatively straightforward and easy. But it also reduces or even eliminates the educational value of the assignment—assuming, of course, that its purpose is to get students to think for themselves.

Ideally, then, structure should be moderate rather than extreme. There should be just enough to give students some sense of direction and to stimulate more accomplishment than if they worked with less structure or guidance. This ideal is essentially Vygotsky’s idea of the “Zone of Proximal Development”: a place (figuratively speaking) where students get more done with help than without it. The ideal amount of guidance—and the “location” of the Zone of Proximal Development—may vary with the assignment and with the student, and it may (hopefully) decrease over time for all students. One student may need more guidance to do his or her best in math, but less guidance in order to write his best essay. Another student may need the reverse. Both students may need less at the end of the year than at the beginning.

Managing Transitions

The time between activities is often full of distractions and “lost” time, and is often when inappropriate behaviors are especially likely to occur. Part of the problem is intrinsic to transitions: students often have to wait before a new activity begins, and therefore get bored, at the same moment when the teacher may be preoccupied with locating and arranging materials for the new activity. From the point of view of students, therefore, transitions may seem essentially like unsupervised group time, when (seemingly) “anything goes.”

Minimizing such problems requires two strategies, one of which is easier to implement than the other. The easier strategy is for you, as teacher, to organize materials as well as possible ahead of time, so that you minimize the time needed to begin a new activity or class session. This advice sounds simple, and mostly is, but it can sometimes take a bit of practice to implement smoothly.

A second, a more complex strategy, is to teach students as many ways as possible to manage their own behavior during transitions (Marzano & Marzano, 2004).[5] If students talk too loudly between activities, for example, then discuss with them what constitutes appropriate levels or amounts of talk during those times, as well as about the need for them to monitor their own sound level at that time. Or if students stop work early in anticipation of the end of an activity, then talk about—or even practice—using a signal from yourself to indicate the true ending point for an activity. If certain students continue working beyond the end of an activity, on the other hand, then try giving students advance warning of the impending end of the activity, and remind them about their taking the responsibility for actually finishing work once they hear the advance warning. And so on. The point of all of these tactics is to encourage students’ sense of responsibility for their behavior transitions, and thereby reduce your own need to monitor them at that crucial time.

None of these ideas, of course, mean that you, as teacher, can or should give up monitoring students’ behavior entirely. Chances are that you still will need to notice if and when someone talks too loudly, finishes too early, or continues too long, and you will still need to give those students appropriate reminders. But the amount of reminding will be less to the extent that students can remind and monitor themselves—a welcome trend at any time during the day, but especially during transitions.

Maintaining the Flow of Activities

A lot of classroom management is really about keeping activities flowing smoothly, both during individual lessons and across the school day. The trouble with this straightforward-sounding idea, however, is that there is never just “one” event happening at a time, even if only one activity has been formally planned and is supposed to be occurring. Even if, for example, everyone is supposed to be attending a single whole-class discussion on a topic, individual students will be having different experiences at any one moment. Several students may be listening and contributing comments, for example, but a few others may be planning what they want to say next and ignoring the current speakers, still others may ruminating about what a previous speaker said, and still others may be thinking about unrelated matters, like using the restroom, food, or after school events. Things get even more complicated if the teacher deliberately plans multiple activities: in that case some students may interact with the teacher, for example, while others do work in an unsupervised group or work independently in a different part of the room. How is a teacher to keep activities flowing smoothly in the face of such variety?

A common mistake of beginning teachers in multi-faceted activity settings like these is to pay too much attention to any one activity, student, or small group, at the expense of noticing and responding to all the others. If you are helping a student on one side of the room but someone on the other side disturbs classmates with off-task conversation, it tends to be less effective either to finish with the student you are helping before attending to the disruption, or to interrupt your help for the student until you have solved the disruption on the other side of the room. Either approach is likely to allow the flow of activities to be disrupted somewhere; there is a risk that either the student’s chatting may spread to others, or the interrupted student may become bored with waiting to regain the teacher’s attention and get off-task herself.

A better solution, though at first it may seem tricky or challenging, is to attend to both events at once—a strategy that was named “Withitness” in a series of now-classic research students several decades ago (Kounin, 1970). Withitness does not mean that you focus on all simultaneous activities with equal care, but only that you are aware of multiple activities, behaviors, and events to some degree. At a particular moment, for example, you may be focusing on helping a student, but in some corner of your mind you also notice when chatting begins on the other side of the room. You have, as the saying goes, “eyes in the back of your head.” Research has found that experienced teachers are much more likely to show withitness than inexperienced teachers, and that these qualities are associated with their managing classrooms successfully (Emmer & Stough, 2001).

Simultaneous awareness—withitness—makes possible responses to the multiple events that are immediate and nearly simultaneous—what educators sometimes call “Overlapping”. The teacher’s responses to each event or behavior need not take equal time, nor even be equally noticeable to all students. If you are helping one student with seat work at the precise moment when another student begins chatting off-task, for example, a quick glance to the second student may be enough to bring him back to the work at hand, and may scarcely interrupt your conversation with the first student, or be noticed by others who are not even involved. The result is a smoother flow to activities overall.

Communicating the Importance of Learning and of Positive Behavior

Taken together, arranging space, establishing procedures and rules, and developing “withitness” about multiple events set the stage for communicating an important message: that the classroom is a place where learning and positive social behavior are priorities. In addition, teachers can convey this message by giving feedback to students in a timely way, by keeping accurate records of their performance, and by deliberately communicating with parents or caregivers about their children and about activities in class.

Giving Timely Feedback

Feedback is a term often used by educators to refer to responses given to students about their behavior or performance. Feedback is essential for students if they are to learn or if they are to develop classroom behavior that is new or more subtle and “mature.” But feedback can only be fully effective if received as soon as possible, when it is still relevant to the task or activity at hand which is usually as soon as possible (Reynolds, 1992).[8] A score on a test is more informative immediately after a test than after a six-month delay, when students may have forgotten much of the content of the test. A teacher’s comment to a student about an inappropriate, off-task behavior may not be especially welcome immediately after the behavior occurs, but it can be more influential and informative then later when both teacher and student have trouble remembering the context of the off-task behavior, and in this sense may literally “not know what they are talking about.” The same is true for comments about a positive behavior by a student: hearing a compliment right away makes it easier to connect the comment with the behavior, and allows the compliment to influence the student more strongly. Even though there are of course practical limits to how fast feedback can be given, the general principle is clear: feedback tends to work better when it is timely.

When it comes to feedback in regards to behavior, we have to engage students in conversations about what took place and how they can display more positive behaviors in the future.  Students need this type of support and feedback if we want them to change their actions.  Punishing them is not feedback and it is not effective in changing behaviors.

Students also need feedback when it comes to the work they do in the classroom.  We have all had teachers who collect our essay, but don’t return it for two or three weeks.  By that point, students are no longer vested in the assignment and they are not going to learn from any comments or feedback you are given, assuming feedback is given.

If we ask students to complete an assignment, project, etc., we need to be sure we not only return it timely, but also provide feedback.  Let students know where they were strong, things you may have liked about the assignment, as well as how they can improve in areas.  Feedback should be specific and help students learn.  Comments such as “Good Job”, “Nice Work”, or “Needs More Detail”, do not give students the information they need in order to improve or continue a positive strategy, etc.  They have to know what was “good” or “nice.”  You can use these terms, but you need to give them the information that warrants this statement.  Here are some examples:

1. You have two more words correct on your spelling test than last week.  Good job!

2. All of your colors complement each other in your drawing and the faces are realistic and express emotion.  Nice work!

3. There is more detail needed in your paper on arson.  You could have included the reasons why people resort to arson, and what types of help is available for serial arsonists.

Can you see how these statements provide the student with more information that they can use as they move forward in their studies?  This is the type of feedback we need to give to students.  When we provide this for them, and return their work with this feedback in a timely  manner, we can provide valuable and strong support for their continued learning.

During the days or weeks while students wait for a test or assignment to be returned, they are left without information about quality or nature of their performance; at the extreme they may even have to complete a next test or assignment before getting any information from an earlier one. (Perhaps you have already experienced this problem during your years as a student!)

Maintaining Accurate Records

Accurate records are helpful not only for scores on tests, quizzes or assignments, but also for keeping descriptive information about the nature of students’ academic skills or progress. A common way to do so is the student portfolio, which is a compilation of the student’s work and on-going assessments of it added by the teacher or by the student (Moritz & Christie, 2005; White, 2005). To know of how a student’s science project evolved from its beginning, for example, a teacher and student can keep a portfolio of lab notes, logs, preliminary data, and the like. To know how a student’s writing skills are developing, on the other hand, they could keep a portfolio of early drafts on various writing assignments. As the work accumulates, the student can discuss it with the teacher, and either of them can write brief reflections on its strengths thus far and on the next steps needed to improve the work further. By providing a way to respond to work as it evolves, portfolios can respond to students’ work relatively promptly, and in any case sooner than if a teacher waited until the work was complete or final.

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://uark.pressbooks.pub/introductiontoeducation/?p=41#h5p-3

Communicating with Parents and Caregivers

Teachers are responsible for keeping parents informed and involved to whatever extent is practical. Virtually all parents understand and assume that schools are generally intended for learning, but communication can enrich their understanding of how this purpose is realized in their particular child’s classroom, and it can show them more precisely what their particular child is doing there. Such understanding in turn allows parents and caregivers to support their child’s learning more confidently and “intelligently,” and in this sense contributes, at least indirectly, to a positive learning environment in their child’s class.

There are various ways to communicate with parents, each with advantages and limitations. Here are three common examples:

- A regular classroom newsletter: The advantage of a newsletter is that it establishes a link with all parents or caregivers with comparatively little effort on the part of the teacher.  At the beginning of the year, for example, a newsletter can tell about special materials that students will need, important dates to remember (like professional development days when there is no school), or about curriculum plans for the next few weeks. But newsletters also have limitations. They can seem impersonal, for example, or they may get lost on the way home and never reach parents or caregivers. They can also be impractical for teachers with multiple classes, as in high school or in specialist subjects (like music or physical education), where each class may follow a different program or have a different purpose.  Email may allow us to send electronic copies of a newsletter, but either way, there is no guarantee parents will ready them.

- Telephone calls: The main advantage of phoning is its immediacy and individuality. Teacher and parent or caregiver can talk about a particular student, behavior, or concern. By the same token, however, phone calls are not an efficient way to inform parents about events or activities that affect everyone in common. The individuality of phoning may explain why teachers tend to use this method more often when a student has a problem that is urgent or unusual—as when he has failed a test or has misbehaved seriously. Rightly or wrongly, a student’s successes may not seem urgent enough to merit a call to the student’s home, although I would encourage you to make positive phone calls to parents as well.

- Parent-teacher conferences: Most schools schedule regular times—often a day or an evening—when teachers meet briefly with any parents or caregivers who request a meeting. Under good conditions, the conferences can have the individuality of phone calls, but also the greater richness of communication possible in face-to-face meetings. Since conferences are available to all parents, they need not focus on behavior or academic problems, but often simply help to build rapport and understanding between parents or caregivers and the teacher. Sometimes too, particularly at younger grade levels, teachers organize conferences to be led by the student, who displays and explains his or her work using a portfolio or other archive of accumulated materials (Benson & Barnett, 2005; Stiggins & Chappuis, 2005). In spite of all of these advantages, though, parent-teacher conferences have limitations. Some parents have trouble getting to conferences, for example, because of their work schedules. Others may feel intimidated by any school-sponsored event because they speak limited English or because they remember getting along poorly in school themselves as children.

- Classroom Website:  A classroom website can help keep parents informed of classroom events, school information, and serve as a reference for class guidelines, expectations or other relevant information for families.

Even if a teacher makes all of these efforts to communicate, some parents may remain out of contact. In these cases it is important to remember that the causes may not be parents’ indifference to their child or to the value of education. Other possibilities exist, as some of our comments above indicate: parents may have difficulties with child care, for example, have inconvenient work schedules, or feel self-conscious because of their own limited skills (Stevens & Tollafield, 2003). Whatever the reasons, there are ways to encourage parents who may be shy, hesitant, or busy. One is to think of how they can assist the class or school even from home—for example, by making materials to be used in class or (if they are comfortable using English) phoning other parents about class events. A second way is to have a specific task for the parents in mind—one with clear structure, definite starting and ending points, and one that truly will benefit the class if someone can in fact complete it. A third is to encourage, support, and respect the parents’ presence and contributions when they do show up at school functions. Keep in mind, after all, that parents are experts about their own particular children, and without their efforts, you would have no students to teach!

Thoughts

Parent communication can be a challenge, even when everyone has access to technology. Watch the following video.  What might be one strategy a new teacher might take away?

3 Great Ways You Can Power Up Your Parent Communication

https://youtu.be/S3zQcA_s3jM

Responding to Student Misbehavior

So far we have focused on preventing behaviors that are off-task, inappropriate, or annoying. Our advice has all been pro-active or forward-looking: plan the classroom space thoughtfully, create reasonable procedures and rules, pace lessons and activities appropriately, and communicate the importance of learning clearly. Although we consider these ideas to be important, it would be naïve to imply they are enough to prevent all behavior problems. For various reasons, students sometimes still do things that disrupt other students or interrupt the flow of activities. At such moments the challenge is not about long-term planning but about making appropriate, but prompt responses. Misbehaviors left alone can be contagious, a process educators sometimes call the ripple effect (Kounin, 1970). Chatting between two students, for example, can gradually become chatting among six students; rudeness by one can eventually become rudeness by several; and so on. Because of this tendency, delaying a response to inappropriate behavior can make the job of getting students back on track harder than responding to it as immediately as possible.

There are many ways to respond to inappropriate behaviors, of course, and they vary in how much they focus on the immediate behavior of a student rather than on longer-term patterns of behavior. There are so many ways to respond, in fact, that we can only describe a sampling of the possibilities here. None are effective all of the time, though all do work at least some of the time. We start with a response that may not seem on the surface like a remedy at all—simply ignoring misbehaviors.

Ignoring Misbehaviors

A lot of misbehaviors are not important enough or frequent enough to deserve any response from the teacher at all. They are likely to disappear (or extinguish, in behaviorist terms) if simply left alone. If a student who is usually quiet during class happens to whisper to a neighbor once in a while, it is probably simpler, less disruptive, and just as effective to ignore this rare infraction of a classroom rule. Some misbehaviors may not be worth a response even if they are frequent, as long as they do not seem to bother others. Suppose, for example, that a certain student has a habit of choosing quiet seat work times to sharpen her pencil, yet this behavior is not really noticed by others. Is it then really a problem, however unnecessary or ill-timed it may be? In both examples ignoring the behavior may be wise because there is little danger of the behavior spreading to other students or of becoming even more frequent. Interrupting your activities—or the students’—might cause more disruption than simply ignoring the problem.

That said, there can sometimes still be problems in deciding whether a particular misbehavior is indeed minor, infrequent, or unnoticed by others. Unlike in our example above, a student may whisper more than “rarely” but less than “often”: in that case, when do you decide that the whispering is in fact too frequent and needs a more active response from you? Or that student who taps her pencil, whom we mentioned above, may not bother most others, but she may nonetheless bother a few. In that case how many bothered classmates are “too many”—five, three, just one, or…? In these grey, ambiguous cases, you may need a more active way of dealing with inappropriate behavior like the ones described in the next sections.

Gesturing Non-verbally

Sometimes it works to communicate using gestures, eye contact, or “body language” that involve little or no speaking. Nonverbal cues are often appropriate if a misbehavior is just a bit too serious or frequent to ignore, but not serious or frequent enough to merit taking the time deliberately to speak to or talk with the student. If two students are chatting off-task for a relatively extended time, for example, sometimes a glance in their direction, a frown, or even just moving closer to the students is enough of a reminder to get them back on task. And even if these responses prove not to be enough, they may help to keep the off-task behavior from spreading to other students.

A risk of relying on nonverbal cues, however, is that some students may not understand their meaning, or even notice them. If the two chatting students mentioned above are too engrossed in their talking, for example, they may not see you glance or frown at them. Or they might notice but not interpret your cue as a reminder to get back on task. Misinterpretation of nonverbal gestures and cues is a little more likely with young children, who are still learning the subtleties of adults’ nonverbal “language” (Guerrero & Floyd, 2005; Heimann, et al., 2006). It can also be more likely with students who speak limited English and whose cultural background differs significantly different from yours, because the students may be used to communicating non-verbally in ways that literally “look different” from the ways familiar to you (Marsh, Elfenbein, & Ambady, 2003).

I taught my students some basic sign language to assist with these types of situations.  I taught them the sign for “bathroom” so they could simply sign and I could answer and we avoided some of those dramatic interruptions we have when someone needs to use the restroom.  I also taught them, “yes”, “no”, “sit down”, “please”, “thank you”, “quiet”, “work”, and a few others.  This allowed me to communicate with students in a way that did not disrupt class, and also gave them a way to communicate with me.

Natural and Logical Consequences

Consequences are the outcomes or results of an action. When managing a classroom, two kinds of consequences are especially effective, at least when the conditions are appropriate: natural consequences and logical consequences. Natural consequences are ones that happen “naturally” or without any deliberate intention by anyone. If a student is late for class, for example, a natural consequence is that he may miss information or material that he needs to do an assignment. Logical consequences are ones that happen because of the responses of others, but that also have an obvious or “logical” relationship to the original action. If one student steals another’s lunch, for example, a logical consequence might be for the thief to reimburse the victim for the cost of the lunch. Natural and logical consequences are often woven together and thus hard to distinguish: if one student picks a fight with another student, a natural consequence might be injury to the aggressor (a natural risk of fighting), but a logical consequence might be to lose friends (the response of others to fighting). In practice both may occur.

General research has found that natural and logical consequences can be effective for minimizing undesirable behaviors, provided they are applied in appropriate situations (Weinstein, Tomlinson-Clarke, & Curran, 2004). Take, for example, a student who runs impulsively down school hallways. By the very nature of this action, he or she is especially likely to have “traffic accidents,” and thus (hopefully) to see that running is not safe and to reduce the frequency of running.  Consider a student who chronically talks during class instead of working on a class-time assignment. A logical outcome of this choice is to require the student to make up the assignment later, possibly as homework. Because the behavior and the consequence are connected directly, the student is relatively likely to see the drawback of choosing to talk, and to reduce how much he or she talks on subsequent occasions. In both cases, the key features that make natural and logical consequences work is:

1. they are appropriate to the misbehavior and

2. the student sees or understands the connection between the consequences and the original behavior.

Natural and logical consequences do not work for every problem behavior; if they did, there would be no further need for management strategies! One limitation is that misbehaviors can sometimes be so serious that no natural or logical consequence seems sufficient or appropriate. Suppose, for example, that one student deliberately breaks another student’s eyeglasses. There may be a natural consequence for the victim (he or she will not be able to see easily), but not for a student who broke the glasses. There may also be no logical consequences for the aggressor that are fully satisfactory: the misbehaving student will not be able to repair the broken glasses and may not even be able to pay for new glasses for the victim.

Another limitation of natural and logical consequences is that their success depends on the motives of the misbehaving student. If the student is seeking attention or acceptance by others, then the consequences often work well. Bullying in order to impress others, for example, is more likely to lose friends than to win them—so this sort of bullying is to some extent self-limiting. If a student is seeking power over others, on the other hand, then consequences may not work well. Bullying in order to control others’ actions, for example, may actually achieve its own goal, and its “natural” results (losing friends) would not affect it. Of course, students may sometimes act from combinations of motives, with the result that natural and logical consequences may succeed, but only partially.

A third problem with natural and logical consequences is that they can easily be confused with deliberate punishment (Kohn, 2006). The difference is important. Consequences are focused on repairing damage and restoring relationships, and in this sense consequences focus on the future. Punishments, in contrast, highlight the mistake or wrongdoing and in this sense focus on the past. Consequences tend to be more solution focused; punishments tend to highlight the person who committed the action and to shame or humiliate the wrongdoer.

Classroom examples of the differences are plentiful. If a student is late for class, then a consequence may be that he or she misses important information, but a punishment may be that the teacher scolds or reprimands the student. If a student speaks rudely to the teacher, a consequence may be that the teacher does not respond to the comment, or simply reminds the student to speak courteously. A punishment may be that the teacher scolds the student in the presence of other students, or even imposes a detention (“Stay after school for 15 minutes”).

We want to strive to resolve issues with students using natural and logical consequences, and avoid punishment.  Punishment does not teach, it is often not connected to the actual act, and it serves to cause hard feelings on the part of the student towards the teacher and this does not help to foster a positive and productive teacher/student relationship, which we know is vital in learning.

In elementary school, taking away recess is often used as a punishment for a wide variety of behaviors.  Taking away recess, however, usually never relates to the behavior of the student!  I beg you never to use this punishment with your students.  First of all, it does nothing to teach appropriate behaviors, and that is our goal.  Recess provides a valuable learning opportunity for students.  Students learn social skills such as problem solving, how to enter play, compromise, and many more through interaction on the playground.  We also know that movement is vital in learning and children need the opportunity to move about and activate areas of the brain that may have “gone to sleep”, as children spend extended time sitting at a desk.  There is also the motor development that takes place as they jump, climb, throw a ball and all of the other activities they engage in.  While it’s often used, and is an easy “out” for teachers, talk with students about behaviors and look to give them positive strategies to follow rather than punishment for what they have done.  They need recess!

Conflict Resolution and Problem Solving

When a student misbehaves persistently and disruptively, you will need strategies that are more active and assertive than the ones discussed so far, and that lead to conflict resolution—the reduction of disagreements that persist over time. The conflict resolution strategies that educators and teachers advocate and use usually have two parts (Jones, 2004).[7] First, the strategies involve a way of identifying precisely what “the” problem is. Once this is done, they require reminding the student of classroom expectations and rules without apology or harshness, but with simple clarity and assertiveness. When used together, the clarification and assertion can not only reduce conflicts between a teacher and an individual student, but also provide a model for other students to consider when they have disagreements of their own.

Step 1: Clarify and identify the problem: Classrooms can be emotional places even when its primary purpose is to promote “thinking” rather than the expression of feelings as such. The emotional quality can be quite desirable: it can give teachers and students “passion” for learning and respect or even good feelings for each other. But it can also cause trouble if students misbehave: at those moments negative feelings—annoyance, anger, discomfort—can interfere with understanding exactly what went wrong and how to set things right again.  Allow all involved to calm down and then let each individual state their view of the problem.  If the issue is between two students, let each share their side of the story.  If the issue involves you and a student, let the student state his view, and then you share yours.

Step 2: Active and empathetic listening: Diagnosing accurately the conflict is necessary in order to resolve it.  We need to use “Active Listening”—attending carefully to all aspects of what a student says and attempting to understand or empathize with it as fully as possible, even if you do not agree with what is being said (Cooper & Simonds, 2003). Active Listening involves asking a lot of questions in order continually to check your understanding. It also involves encouraging the student to elaborate or expand on his or her remarks, and paraphrasing and summarizing what the student has said in order to check your perceptions of what is being said. It is important not to move too fast toward “solving” the problem with advice, instructions, or scolding, even if these are responses that you might, as a teacher, feel responsible for making. Responding too soon in these ways can shut down communication prematurely, and leave you with an inaccurate impression of the source of the problem.

Depending on the issue, you  may want to use Step 3 or skip this and use Step 4.  For most conflicts that involve two students, we will use Step 4.

Step 3: Assertive discipline and “I” messages: Once you have listened well enough to understand the student’s point of view, it helps to frame your responses and comments in terms of how the student’s behavior affects you as a teacher. The comments should have several features:

- They should be assertive—neither passive and apologetic, nor unnecessarily hostile or aggressive. State what the problem is, as matter-of-factly as possible: “Joe, you are talking while I’m explaining something,” instead of either “Joe, do you think you could be quiet now?” or “Joe, be quiet!”

- The comments should emphasize I-messages, which are comments that focus on how the problem behavior is affecting the teacher’s ability to teach, as well as how the behavior makes the teacher feel. They are distinct from you-messages, which focus on evaluating the mistake or problem which the student has created. An I-message might be, “Your talking is making it hard for me to remember what I’m trying to say.” A you-message might be, “Your talking is rude.”

- The comments should encourage the student to think about the effects of his or her actions on others—a strategy that in effect encourages the student to consider the ethical implications of the actions (Gibbs, 2003). Instead of simply saying, “When you cut in line ahead of the other kids, that was not fair to them,” you can try saying, “How do you think the other kids feel when you cut in line ahead of them?”

Step 4: Negotiating a solution: The steps so far describe ways of interacting that are desirable, but also fairly specific in scope and limited in duration. In themselves they may not be enough when conflict persists over time and develops a number of complications or confusing features. A student may persist, for example, in being late for class, in spite of diverse efforts by the teacher to modify this behavior. Two students may persist in speaking rudely to each other, even though the teacher has mediated this conflict in the past. Or a student may fail to complete homework, time after time. Because these problems develop over time, and because they may involve repeated disagreements between teacher and student, they can eventually become stressful for the teacher, for the student, and for any classmates who may be affected. Their persistence can tempt a teacher simply to announce or dictate a resolution—a decision that may simply leave everyone feeling defeated, including the teacher.

Often in these situations it is better to negotiate a solution, which means systematically discussing options and compromising on one if possible. Negotiation always requires time and effort, though usually not as much as continuing to cope with the original problem, and the results can be beneficial to everyone. A number of experts on conflict resolution have suggested strategies for negotiating with students about persistent problems (Davidson & Wood, 2004). The suggestions vary in detail, but usually include some combination of the steps we have already discussed above, along with a few others.

- Decide as accurately as possible what the problem is—Usually this step involves a lot of the active listening described above.

- Brainstorm possible solutions, and then consider their effectiveness—Remember to include students in this step; otherwise you are simply imposing a solution on others, which is not what negotiation is supposed to achieve.

- Choose a solution, if possible by consensus—Complete agreement on the choice may not be possible, but strive for it as best you can. Remember that taking a vote may be a democratic, acceptable way to settle differences in many situations. If feelings are running high, however, voting has an ironic by-product: it simply allows individuals to “announce” their differences to each other and therefore maintain the conflict.

- Pay attention later to how well the solution works—For many reasons, things may not work out the way you or the students hope or expect, and you may need to renegotiate the solution at a later time.

Keeping Management Issues in Perspective

There are two messages from this chapter. One is that management issues are important, complex, and deserve any teacher’s serious attention. The other is that management strategies exist and can reduce, if not eliminate, management problems when and if they occur. We have explained what some of those strategies are—including some intended to prevent problems from happening and others intended to remedy problems if they do occur.

But there is a third message that this chapter cannot convey by itself: that good classroom management is not an end in itself, but a means for creating a climate where learning happens as fully as possible. During the stress of handling problem behaviors, there is sometimes a risk of losing sight of this idea. Quiet listening is never a goal in itself, for example; it is desirable only because (or when) it allows students to hear the teacher’s instructions or classmates’ spoken comments, or because it allows students to concentrate on their work or assignments better. There may, therefore, actually be moments when quiet listening is not important to achieve, such as during a “free choice” time in an elementary classroom or during a period of group work in a middle school classroom. As teachers, we need to keep this perspective firmly in mind. Classroom management should serve students’ learning, and not the other way around.

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

8

What are the Ethical and Legal Issues in Schools?

Myra Haulmark and Jennifer Beasley

Let’s examine some of the rights guaranteed to all Americans and how those rights change once they enter school. We will also answer some of the most common questions held by students. What is free speech? Is it protected in school? How safe am I in my possessions? Do I have any expectation of privacy when it comes to my things? A good understanding of students’ rights benefits everyone: the students who exercise them, the teachers who challenge them, and the democratic society which lives by them.  Lawsuits have become increasingly common in our society and many Americans act and speak out of the fear of being taken to court. In any environment, one must be conscious of how their words and actions will affect others.

A thoughtless statement or inappropriate physical contact might land you in court. This is especially true in schools, where daily contact, high emotions and stressful circumstances can all come together at the wrong moment. As such, it is good to understand the rights of students trying to express themselves and the rights of teachers trying to keep a safe, orderly learning environment. Few people know their constitutional rights, and even fewer teachers & students know how their constitutional rights change once they enter the ‘semi-public/semi-private” classroom.

- A cheerleader is suspended for using inappropriate language on social media after school.

- Male Texas student suspended for violating dress code by wearing nail polish.

- Student suspended for having a BB gun in his bedroom during virtual class.

- Broward teacher banned over alleged sexual comments.

- Teacher fired after being accused of forcing student to dig waste out of toilet.

All of the above cases are real and recent headlines. The cases represent a variety of the legal and ethical areas of the teaching profession that exist today. Since the majority of teacher preparation candidates do not have legal backgrounds, this chapter exists to provide an overview of some of the pitfalls that can plague not only the new teacher but those that have been in the profession for years. The legal landscape of the teaching profession seems to be ever evolving with increasingly complex ethical and moral challenges. While this chapter will in no way be all inclusive, it will provide you some basics and food for thought.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Distinguish the difference between laws and ethics and explain how both are necessary for teachers

- Identify several ways that ethics are involved with teachers day to day activities

- Describe the hierarchy of school systems

- Identify several key areas of the law related to student and teachers

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Ethics

- Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (or IDEA)

- Least Restrictive Environment

- In loco parentis

- Due process

Educator Ethics

Introductory reading download here or at: https://www.ets.org/s/proethica/pdf/real-clear-articles.pdf

https://vimeo.com/126979216

Key moments: Regulatory Framework 10:53 | An Ethical Framework 12:12 | Trajectory Decision Making 12:45

This section of the chapter will discuss professional ethics and the teaching profession with the takeaway being that you will be able to discern the difference between your legal responsibilities and ethical ones and the impact that your ability to make sound decisions will keep you from potentially hurting a student and your teaching career.  Knowing your ethical responsibilities and how to practice ethical decision making can mitigate the teacher’s risk. Having some training in ethical decision making can serve as a foundation to build your philosophy of education.

So why discuss ethics? Within teaching there is a unique set of ethical relationships and legal obligations that are embedded in the work of a teacher. Teachers have this awesome responsibility to build moral character and be an example of that too. In the above article section “What Professional Ethics Mean” Dr. Troy Hutchings states:

“The misperceptions blurring the lines between personal and professional ethics become even more difficult to address when we think about the ethics of education. I personally believe the reasons why these misperceptions exist go back to the roots of public education in this country. We’ve long thought of teaching as being an extension of parenting — a moral good that has seemingly obvious guidelines for what should be done in any situation. As a result, teachers, like parents, are expected — and expect themselves — to follow their own personal morality and life experience as they make decisions. We’re often expected to innately know the best way to address any problem that involves the children we serve.“

From preschool to high school teachers have an enormous impact on students. At the heart of the matter, the teacher’s relationship to a student is a special kind of power as students can be considered impressionable and malleable. Because of this power there can be the potential abuse of power. We all have seen headlines of this “abuse” of power and generally once we see these headlines, they are not only violations of ethical standards that are occurring, but now illegal behaviors.

Questions for you to think about are:

Does the lack of ethical decision making happen all at once?

Where does it go wrong?

What types of ethical decisions do teachers make that may fly under the radar?

What are ethics?

“Ethics is knowing the difference between what you have a right to do and what is right to do.”  Supreme Court Justice Potter Stuart

Ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics, for example, refers to those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. Ethics can also be defined as a system or code of morality embraced by a person or group.

Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty, compassion, and loyalty; as well as including standards relating to rights, such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy.

But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the devout religious person. Religion can set high ethical standards and can provide intense motivations for ethical behavior. Ethics, however, cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as religion.

How are ethics different from laws?

Laws are related but more formal, they are written and they must be followed. Ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical.

Howe (1986) specifically mentions that ethical judgement consists of six characteristics: appreciation for moral deliberation, empathy, knowledge, reasoning, courage and interpersonal skills. So you may be thinking that’s great – I have those characteristics most of the time so I should be fine! What is the problem with this line of thinking? The problem becomes the reliance solely on a teacher’s personal code of ethics that may rely on many varying moral standards.

“That’s why we, as a profession, need to shift away from the idea that our personal sense of ethics — driven in large part by our upbringing and our life experiences — is enough to help us navigate all the situations we face in the classroom. Even the expectations and norms that evolve in each school vary so much that they alone can’t serve as the sole guide to our decisions. And along with the need for collective understanding of the challenges we face as professionals, we need to acknowledge the inherent risks — ethical, practical and often legal — teachers face on a daily basis…”

Ryan, Cooper, Bollick (2016) put it like this: “some people’s codes of ethics are like a beacon and some are a dim light in a dark room” therefore clarifying the need to have written codes of ethics for teachers. However, where some professions such as attorneys and medical doctors have this universal code, there is not yet a standard code of ethics accepted for all teachers. Some short strides have been made with NEA (National Education Association) and NASDTEC (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification) but most states rely on their own individual codes or teachers adhere to district policy on behavior, often in the form of codes of conduct where there are disciplinary actions if there is a violation of those codes of conduct.

Take some to review the below Codes of Ethics from state and national organizations? Which are more detailed and provide the clearest standards?

Arkansas Code of Ethics

NEA (National Education Association)

NASDTEC (National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification)

What do you think? Many teachers make decisions in isolation out of fear they will spark the perception they are being unethical.

https://vimeo.com/457957892

In the above video, Dr. Troy Hutchins speaks with teachers about the need for a code of ethics or a common decision making framework for ethics.  Describe what might go through a new teacher’s mind as they are encountering an ethical decision they may need to make – What can be done to help teachers make ethical decisions and ask for assistance if needed? What can a teacher do to mitigate any negative perceptions if they talk to someone about an ethical dilemma? What can the school do to support teachers?

Ethics Case Studies:

https://youtu.be/fGQbLSEPN5w

Social Media Dilemma

https://youtu.be/5OMjeXdaoHk

Out for a Drink

https://youtu.be/B0UEFSmxkbg

Ride Dilemma

https://youtu.be/cmiaLxCUDkw

Parent Teacher Relationship

https://youtu.be/it4a24xvHuU

Coach Dilemma

Schools and the Law

The Hierarchy of the System

Who oversees school systems? The public school governing system is actually a hierarchy (March, 1978). There are several tiers to this hierarchy beginning with the federal level and ending with the individual teachers. It is a pyramid of administrators doing everything they can to educate today’s students.

Federal and State

While some may believe that administration of schools starts with the federal government, the truth is that on the federal level there is very little involvement in education, even in funding (Federal Role, n.d.). The federal government sets some guidelines for education, such as the “Every Student Succeeds Act”, but not specific ones such as curriculum taught. In actuality, the states have most of the power over their own schools and what they teach (Education Commission of the States [ECS], 1999). The states set what the students will learn and what standards they have to meet. This means that if a child is meeting their grade level standard in Tennessee they may or may not be meeting the Virginia standards for that grade level. States try to decide what knowledge is imperative for students to learn before they move on to the next grade or even college (ECS, 1999).

The “Common Core Standards” are an attempt to “level the playing field.”  The process began in 2009 with a group of state governors and school officials.   The idea was to create real-life, relevant learning goals that could be adopted by states, and lead to our students learning the same things at the same time.  With this idea, that same student in Tennessee would be working on the same standards as the student in Virginia.  The CCS, however, were not mandated by the federal government, nor created by the federal government and this is important to know.  It was a state initiative and states had the right to adopt the standards or not.   Not all states have adopted the CCS, and some adopted the standards and then repealed them.   More information on the Common Core Standards can be found at Common Core State Standards Initiative.

Michigan adopted the standards in 2010.  Michigan has used the CCS to create our learning standards.   Michigan’s curriculum standards can be found on the Michigan Academic Standards Page.

States also choose the standards that the teachers must meet (ECS, 1999). The state wants the teacher to be able to educate the students to achieve the set standards. There are things that every state requires, but each of them has their own variation. Every state requires the teacher to have a college degree and some form of standardized testing to be able to teach in their public school system. There are national tests available, but each state requires different ones. Teachers moving to a different state may be required to complete a new test or even a new course before gaining certification in that state.

States have the largest financial role in the schools. Very little funding comes from the federal government. Most of the federal funding is applied for by the individual school in the form of a grant for a special purpose (Federal Role, n.d.). The states provide teacher salaries and the money required to run each individual school.  Schools may also have a Parent/Teacher Association  which can help to raise additional funds for individual schools.  (ECS, 1999).

Hierarchy Tiers on a District Level

School Board

Superintendent

Principal

Teacher

District

Each state is broken up into districts (ECS, 1999). Most administration deals on a small level, either within the district, or in the individual school (March, 1978). The districts each have their own school board made of elected members (Office of the Education Ombudsman, n.d.). Those boards decide how their schools will achieve the standards set by the state. They will also decide anything else they believe the schools should be doing to service their district’s children. Some of these things include overseeing the curriculum and helping to promote better teaching techniques (Education Administrators, n.d.). The board has to have all schools achieving at a level set by the state, so they use their resources to push the schools to achieve the standards they have set (ECS, 1999).

Superintendent

A superintendent is chosen to oversee the schools in the district (ECS, 1999).  While the school board is elected by the community, the superintendent is hired by the school board.  Anyone who meets the qualifications may apply.  The school board conducts interviews and makes the decision on which individual to hire.  Sometimes individuals from within the district are  hired, and other times the individual hired comes from outside of the district.  They are in charge of making sure the schools are doing what is required by the school board. They make routine visits to schools to check on how they are doing. They work with the principals and teachers to see that children are getting the most out of each school day.

Principal and Assistant Principal

The district hires principals to oversee each individual school. These principals are there to see that the teachers are doing their job and the children are getting the education they deserve (Office of the Education Ombudsman, n.d.). They are responsible for scheduling, planning the daily activities, and managing the overall activities of the school (Office of the Education Ombudsman, n.d.). Principals make routine visits to classrooms to make sure they are running smoothly and that teachers are making the most of their instructional time. Another difficult duty of the principal is the budget for the school. The principal must decide how to best spend the school’s money (Education Administrators, n.d.).

The schools also have assistant principals. These administrators help the principal in the daily activities of the school. They also handle most of the discipline problems leaving the principal available to focus on other duties (Education Administrators, n.d.).

Teacher

Each school district  is responsible for the hire of their teachers.  In some districts there is a hiring committee formed to interview and recommend teachers to hire.  In other districts the school board interviews and there are some districts where the individual school will conduct interviews and make a recommendation to the board.

The teacher is the one with the most direct affect on students. They ultimately decide what happens in the classrooms (ECS, 1999). When the door closes every morning it is up to the teacher to make an effective use of time and get children to those standards set by the state. If children in their classrooms are not performing well, the teacher is held responsible.  It’s vital that we hire individuals with the “right stuff” to make learning fun and a successful experience for children.

Teachers and the Law: Rights and Responsibilities

Read Bonus Module: Legal Issues in Teaching

https://kstatelibraries.pressbooks.pub/EDCI702/chapter/bonus-module-legal-issues-in-teaching/

Once you have completed all of the necessary requirements of your educator preparation program to earn a teaching license in your state, there will be ongoing work for you to not only maintain it but protect it as well. Each state has specific laws in place to protect both the student and teacher, in addition each state may also have certain sets of laws that prohibit someone from becoming licensed as well. Immoral conduct and willful neglect of duty are some of the most common reasons that teachers are fired today. The above paragraphs overview the role ethics impact a teacher’s daily decision making and the following paragraphs will overview some of the laws and results of court cases that may impact your work as a teacher. (Teachers’ Rights in the Classroom )

Freedom of Expression

A court case in which a teacher criticized the school board’s financial policies and was fired. He took the case to the Supreme Court and won. Teachers are guaranteed the right to express their opinions and beliefs under the First Amendment, as long as they do not disrupt the business of the school and the learning environment.

Pickering v. Board of Education of Township High School (1968)

- Teacher wrote a letter-to-the-editor about school board tax/revenue spending and was then fired by the school board.

- Teacher sued the school board in violation of 1st Amendment rights.

- SCOTUS 9-0:  The school board, as a government agency, violated both the 1st and 14th amendments of the teacher.  SCOTUS ruled that teachers, though employed by the school district/government, were still private citizens and their free speech, as long as not slanderous or false, was protected from firing by the school board/government.

Pickering Balance Test for Freedom of Expression for Teachers:

- Need for harmony in the workplace.

- Close working relationship – does the speech violate it.

- The time, place, and manner of the speech.

- The context of the dispute.

- The degree of public interest in the speech.

- Does the speech impede or impair the teacher’s ability to perform their duties.

Mt. Healthy City Board of Education v. Doyle (1977)

- A teacher claimed he was not rehired due to his Free Speech activities.

- The teacher in question had, during the same year, become hostile with other teachers and school employees, swore at students, and committed obscene gestures at work.

- SCOTUS 9-0: While the teacher did engage in free speech activities, his firing was not a result of those free speech activities, nor did his free speech activities factor into his firing.  His ‘behavior’ had been documented by the school prior to his free speech activities.

Academic Freedom

Fowler v. Board of Education of Lincoln County (1987)

- Fowler was fired after showing an R-rated movie (Pink Floyd – The Wall) to students as a reward on the last day of class, a movie she had not personally seen and did not watch with the student.

- Fowler said her termination was unlawful under Free Speech and the tradition of academic freedom.

- Ruling by Federal court: Free speech only applies when it is expressive or communicative.  Because Fowler did not watch the movie with the students to explain or answer questions and/or the movie did not have an inherent educational value, she could not claim free speech or academic freedom and her termination was lawful.

Wilson v. Chancellor (1976)

- A government teacher had various political party speakers come in and talk to their class; however, when a Communist was invited the school board banned all political speakers before the presentation date.

- Does banning ‘all political speakers’ violate the 1st and 14th amendment?

- Federal District court ruled that the school district violated the teachers freedom of expression as part of the teachers established method of instruction of inviting guest speakers germane to the topic of instruction.  Banning ‘all political speakers’ in this instance was unconstitutional.

Copyright Laws

- Protects the intellectual property of authors

- Must receive permission from author to reproduce materials

- Many items on the internet are also copyrighted

- Some authors give permission for copying to teachers for use in their classroom

Fair Use Guidelines

- Policies which specify limited use of copyright materials for educational purposes

- Can make one copy for planning purposes

- Can make copies for one time use in class

- Pages from consumable materials may not be copied

- Cannot create a collection of works

- Cannot charge students

Students and the Law

https://youtu.be/dj2dBLi7zvQ

Overview of Special Education Law

Special Educational Needs

Three People on the Margins

The First Person: In 1761 a six-year-old girl was captured from West Africa, given the name Phillis Wheatley, and sold into slavery in the City of Boston. By the time she was 17, Phillis had taught herself to read and write and had developed a special love and talent for poetry. Her owner was a wealthy businessman and sought to improve his reputation by publishing an anthology of her poems. Unfortunately he encountered stiff resistance from publishers because few people at that time believed Africans to be capable of the thought and imagination needed to write poetry. People who heard of her poetry were skeptical and inclined to think that it was faked. Eventually, to save his own reputation, the owner assembled a tribunal of 18 prominent judges—including the governor of Massachusetts and John Hancock, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence—to assess the young woman’s mental capacity. After cross-examining her, the judges finally decided that Ms. Wheatley was, after all, capable of writing poetry (Robinson, 1982).

The Second Person: A century later, a child named Helen Keller lost her sight and hearing as a result of illness during infancy. In spite of this misfortune, though, Helen devised a language of gestural signs for communicating with a tutor, and was soon also using Braille to study both French and Latin. At ten she wrote and published a short story. Yet like Ms. Wheatley, Ms. Keller also faced substantial, chronic skepticism about her capacities. Prominent educators accused her of plagiarizing others’ writings and merely “parroting” others’ ideas without understanding them (Keller, 1954; Bogdan, 2006). Eventually, as with Wheatley, a panel was assembled—though this time the members were professional experts about disabilities—to determine whether Ms. Keller was in fact capable of writing what she published. The panel decided that was indeed capable, though only by a slim margin (five judges vs. four judges).

The Third Person: In 1978, Sue Rubin was born with a disability that limited her speech to disordered bursts of sound and occasionally echoing phrases of other people. She was labeled autistic because of her symptoms, and assumed to be profoundly retarded. With support and encouragement from her mother and others, however, Sue eventually learned to type on a keyboard without assistance. She learned to communicate effectively when she was about 13 and was able to go to school. Since then she has made many presentations about autism at conferences and recently co-edited a book about autism, titled Autism: The Myth of the Person Alone (Bogdan, et al., 2005).

One of these individuals experienced racial discrimination and the other two experienced physical disabilities, but notice something important: that all three were defined by society as disabled intellectually. Initially, their achievements were dismissed because of widespread assumptions—whether about race or disability—of their inherent incompetence. All three had to work harder than usual, not only to acquire literacy itself, but also to prove that their literacy was genuine and worthy of respect.

Since the time of Phillis Wheatley, North American society has eliminated slavery and made some progress at reducing certain forms of racism, though much remains to be done. In 1954, for example, the United States Supreme Court ruled that public schools could not be segregated by race, and in doing so recognized, at least legally, the moral obligation of society to provide all citizens with the best possible education. It has taken longer to recognize legally the rights and competence of persons with disabilities, but events and trends beginning in the 1970s have begun to make it happen. This chapter begins by explaining some of these and how they have altered the work of teachers.

Growing Support for People with Disabilities: Legislation and Its Effects

Since the 1970s political and social attitudes have moved increasingly toward including people with disabilities into a wide variety of “regular” activities. In the United States, the shift is illustrated clearly in the Federal legislation that was enacted during this time. The legislation partly stimulated the change in attitudes, but at the same time they partly resulted from the change. Three major laws were passed that guaranteed the rights of persons with disabilities, and of children and students with disabilities in particular. Although the first two affected teachers’ work in the classroom, the third has had the biggest impact on education.

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504

This law—the first of its kind—required that individuals with disabilities be accommodated in any program or activity that receives Federal funding (PL 93-112, 1973). Although this law was not intended specifically for education, in practice it has protected students’ rights in some extra-curricular activities (for older students) and in some child care or after-school care programs (for younger students). If those programs receive Federal funding of any kind, the programs are not allowed to exclude children or youth with disabilities, and they have to find reasonable ways to accommodate the individuals’ disabilities.

The definition of a disability under Section 504 is much broader than under another law providing special education services, “The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act.”  Therefore, many of our students may receive special services under the umbrella of Section 504.  These students will be in general education classrooms and you will have to make the necessary accommodations for them.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (or ADA).

This legislation also prohibited discrimination on the basis of disability, just as Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act had done (PL 101-336, 1990). Although the ADA also applies to all people (not just to students), its provisions are more specific and “stronger” than those of Section 504. In particular, ADA extends to all employment and jobs, not just those receiving Federal funding. It also specifically requires accommodations to be made in public facilities such as buses, restrooms, and telephones. ADA legislation is therefore responsible for some of the “minor” renovations in schools that you may have noticed, such as wheelchair-accessible doors, ramps, and restrooms, and public telephones with volume controls.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (or IDEA)

As its name implied, this legislation was more focused on education than either Section 504 or ADA. It was first passed in 1975 and has been amended several times since, including most recently in 2004 (PL 108-446, 2004). In its current form, the law guarantees the following rights related to education for anyone with a disability from birth to age 21.  In Michigan, services are provided for individuals with disabilities until the age of 26.

- Free, appropriate education: An individual or an individual’s family should not have to pay for education simply because the individual has a disability, and the educational program should be truly educational (i.e. not merely caretaking or “babysitting” of the person).

- Due process: In case of disagreements between an individual with a disability and the schools or other professionals, there must be procedures for resolving the disagreements that are fair and accessible to all parties—including the person himself or herself or the person’s representative.

- Fair evaluation of performance in spite of disability: Tests or other evaluations should not assume test-taking skills that a person with a disability cannot reasonably be expected to have, such as holding a pencil, hearing or seeing questions, working quickly, or understanding and speaking orally. Evaluation procedures should be modified to allow for these differences. This provision of the law applies both to evaluations made by teachers and to school-wide or “high-stakes” testing programs.

- Education in the “least restrictive environment”: Education for someone with a disability should provide as many educational opportunities and options for the person as possible, both in the short term and in the long term. In practice this requirement has meant including students in general education classrooms and school activities as much as possible, though often not totally.

- An individualized educational program: Given that every disability is unique, instructional planning for a person with a disability should be unique or individualized as well. In practice this provision has led to classroom teachers planning individualized programs jointly with other professionals (like reading specialists, psychologists, or medical personnel) as part of a team.  Parents are also a part of this team, and when students are old enough, they can be a part of this process also.  These plans, often referred to as an “IEP”, are reviewed annually and revised.  In some cases, these can be reviewed each semester, or as needed.

Considered together, these provisions are both a cause and an effect of basic democratic philosophy. The legislation says, in effect, that all individuals should have access to society in general and to education in particular. Although teachers certainly support this philosophy in broad terms, and many have welcomed the IDEA legislation, others have found the prospect of applying it in classrooms leads to a number of questions and concerns. Some ask, for example, whether a student with a disability will disrupt the class; others, whether the student will interfere with covering the curriculum; still others, whether the student might be teased by classmates. Since these are legitimate concerns, I will return to them at the end of this chapter. First, however, let me clarify exactly how the IDEA legislation affects the work of teachers, and then describe in more detail the major disabilities that you are likely to encounter in students.

Responsibilities of Teachers for Students with Disabilities

The IDEA legislation has affected the work of teachers by creating three new expectations. The first expectation is to provide alternative methods of assessment for students with disabilities. The second is to arrange a learning environment that is as normal or as “least restrictive” as possible, and the third is to participate in creating individual educational plans for students with disabilities.

Alternative Assessments

Assessments are used in education to determine the strengths of our students, and areas that need further development, and then use that information to plan educational experiences.  In the context of students with disabilities, assessment refers to gathering information about a student in order both to identify the strengths of the student, and to decide what special educational support, if any, the student needs. In principle, of course, these are tasks that teachers have for all students: assessment is a major reason why we give tests and assignments, for example, and why we listen carefully to the quality of students’ comments during class discussions. For students with disabilities, however, such traditional or conventional strategies of assessment often seriously underestimate the students’ competence (Koretz & Barton, 2003/2004; Pullin, 2005). Depending on the disability, a student may have trouble with

1. holding a pencil,

2. hearing a question clearly,

3. focusing on a picture,

4. marking an answer in time even when he or she knows the answer,

5. concentrating on a task in the presence of other people, or

6. answering a question at the pace needed by the rest of the class.

There are many more concerns a student may have, but the point is that we will be dealing with a variety of needs among all of our students, whether they qualify for special education services or not.  The challenge for teachers is meeting the wide variety of needs of our students.  ALL STUDENTS CAN LEARN!  What they learn, how they learn it, and the time it takes to learn it will vary among all of our students.  Keep an open mind always and be willing to make any adaptations that will benefit students.

Traditionally, teachers have assumed that all students either have these skills or can learn them with just modest amounts of coaching, encouragement, and will power. For many other students, for example, it may be enough to say something like “Remember to listen to the question carefully!” For students with disabilities, however, a comment like this may not work and may even be insensitive. A student with visual impairment need not be reminded to “look at the page closely” or “at what I am writing on the board”; doing so will not cause the student to see the chalkboard more clearly—though the reminder might increase the student’s anxiety and self-consciousness.

We also hear teachers tell students to “try harder”, or to “do it again and this time concentrate or pay attention to your work” when they are not successful with a task, or when students ask a question.  Please don’t do this!   When students ask a question, are not successful with an assignment, or stop working, these are all indicators that they are struggling and need support.  Whether they are general education students or students receiving special services, they need to have questions answered and guidance given.  Simply telling them to “try again” or “try harder” is insulting and disrespectful.  Responding in this way will quickly lead to students who may shut down and stop making attempts at their work.  When this happens, we have more problems.

There are a number of strategies for modifying assessments in ways that attempt to be fair and that at the same time recognize how busy teachers usually are. One is to consider supplementing conventional assignments or tests with portfolios, which are collections of a student’s work that demonstrate a student’s development over time, and which usually include some sort of reflective or evaluative comments from the student, the teacher, or both (Carothers & Taylor, 2003; Wesson & King, 1996). Another is to devise a system for observing the student regularly, even if briefly, and informally recording notes about the observations for later consideration and assessment. A third strategy is to recruit help from teacher assistants, who are sometimes present to help a student with a disability; an assistant can often conduct a brief test or activity with the student, and later report on and discuss the results with you.  Keep in mind that an assessment does not always mean a test.  Projects and observation can also be powerful and effective assessments.

If you reflect on these strategies, you may realize that they may sometimes create issues about fairness. If a student with a disability demonstrates competence one way but other students demonstrate it another, should they be given similar credit? On the other hand, is it fair for one student to get a lower mark because the student lacks an ability—such as normal hearing—that teachers cannot, in principle, ever teach? These ethical issues are legitimate and important.

As educators, it is our responsibility to help ALL students learn.  We know that every person learns differently, so why would we try to teach all students in the same way?  It’s not possible. Therefore, we have to help students understand that “equal” and “fair” are two different ideas.  In our classrooms, we cannot treat students equally and have each of them be successful. . We have to adapt to their learning needs.  We will talk more about this later, but we have to talk with our students from the very first day about the practices of the classroom.  They have to understand there will be times when they will be doing things differently from their friends, or vice versa, and it’s all in the name of learning; learning that meets their individual needs.

Least Restrictive Environment

The IDEA legislation calls for placing students with disabilities in the least restrictive environment (or LRE), defined as the combination of settings that involve the student with regular classrooms and school programs as much as possible. The precise combination is determined by the circumstances of a particular school and of the student. A kindergarten child with a mild cognitive disability, for example, may spend the majority of time in the regular kindergarten, working alongside and playing with non-disabled classmates and relying on a teacher assistant for help where needed. An individual with a similar disability in high school, however, might be assigned primarily to classes specially intended for their need, but nonetheless participate in some school wide activities alongside non-disabled students. The difference in LREs might reflect teachers’ perceptions of how difficult it is to modify the curriculum in each case; rightly or wrongly, teachers are apt to regard adaptation as more challenging at “higher” grade levels. By the same token, a student with a disability that is strictly physical might spend virtually all his or her time in regular classes throughout the student’s school career.  In this case, adjustment of the curriculum would not be an issue.

For you, the policy favoring the least restrictive environment means that if you continue teaching long enough, you will very likely encounter a student with a disability in one or more of your classes, or at least have one in a school-related activity for which you are responsible. It also means that the special educational needs of these students will most often be the “mildest.” Statistically, the most frequent forms of special needs are learning disabilities, which are impairments in specific aspects of learning, and especially of reading. Learning disabilities account for about half of all special educational needs—as much as all other types put together. Somewhat less common are speech and language disorders, cognitive disabilities, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders (abbreviated ADHD). Because of their frequency and of the likelihood that you will meet students for whom these labels have been considered, I describe them more fully later in this chapter, along with other disability conditions that you will encounter much less frequently.

Individual Educational Plan

The third way that IDEA legislation and current educational approaches affect teachers is by requiring teachers and other professional staff to develop an annual individual educational plan (or IEP) for each student with a disability. The plan is created by a team of individuals who know the student’s strengths and needs; at a minimum it includes one or more classroom teachers, a “resource” or special education teacher, and the student’s parents or guardians. Sometimes, too, the team includes a school administrator (like a vice-principal) or other professionals from outside the school (like a psychologist or physician), depending on the nature of the child’s disability. An IEP can take many forms, but it always describes a student’s current social and academic strengths as well as the student’s social or academic needs. It also specifies educational goals or objectives for the coming year, lists special services to be provided, and describes how progress toward the goals will be assessed at the end of year. IEPs originally served mainly students in the younger grades, but more recently they have been extended and modified to serve transition planning for adolescents with disabilities who are approaching the end of their public schooling (West, et al., 1999). For these students, the goals of the plan often include activities (like finding employment) to extend beyond schooling as such.

If you have a student with an IEP, you can expect two consequences for teaching. The first is that you should expect to make definite, clear plans for the student, and to put the plans in writing. This consequence does not, of course, prevent you from taking advantage of unexpected or spontaneous classroom events as well in order to enrich the curriculum. But it does mean that an educational program for a student with a disability cannot consist only of the unexpected or spontaneous. The second consequence is that you should not expect to construct an educational plan alone, as it is commonly done when planning regular classroom programs. When it comes to students with disabilities, expect instead to plan as part of a team. Working with others ensures that everyone who is concerned about the student has a voice. It also makes it possible to improve the quality of IEPs by pooling ideas from many sources—even if, as you might suspect, it also can challenge professionals to communicate clearly and cooperate respectfully with team members in order to serve a student as well as possible.

A student in your class refuses to recite the Pledge of Allegiance. Can you send that student to the principal’s office?

1. Yes

2. No

3. It depends!

Students Rights

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HFZgce7TZRI

Student Rights Explained

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ntEQfooBxTk&t=25s

Religion and Public Schools

The founding fathers deliberated for days on end when writing the first draft of our nation’s Constitution and later the Bill of Rights. They agonized over wording; argued over semantics. It is likely they had no idea just how successful this “great experiment in democracy” would turn out to be. Equally likely is this: they never once considered how these rights would pertain to young students in the classroom. The landmark case of Tinker v. Des Moines School District clearly defined the benchmark for how rights may be exercised and when they may be curtailed:

“It can hardly be argued that either students or teachers shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.… On the other hand, the Court has repeatedly emphasized the need for affirming the comprehensive authority of the States and of school officials, consistent with fundamental constitutional safeguards, to prescribe and control conduct in the schools.

… Our problem lies in the area where students in the exercise of [their] rights collide with the rules of the school authorities.”

Constitutional Topic: Student Rights

In other words, one doesn’t surrender his or her constitutional rights by attending school. However the courts have recognized that the unique nature of the school environment requires that certain liberties be suppressed in the interest of maintaining a safe, orderly learning environment. According to the doctrine of “in loco parentis” school officials are more than government officials; they are, in a legal sense, the temporary parents of their students. Just what exactly that allows them to do and say is a matter of debate and has led to numerous legal challenges, many involving the Supreme Court.

The 1st Amendment

Freedom of Speech, Expression & Religion

Perhaps the most quoted court decision on the subject, Tinker v. Des Moines was a battle over students’ 1st amendment rights, specifically the right to free speech. High school students John Tinker, 15, and Christopher Eckhardt, 16, decided to show their opposition to the Vietnam War by wearing black armbands to school. Administrators countered by banning armbands and threatened disciplinary actions for any students violating the rule. Tinker and Eckhardt wore their armbands and were suspended, not allowed back until they agreed to stop violating school rules. Tinker’s father subsequently sued and lost in District Court. The Appellate Court was unable to reach a decision and the case was passed up to the Supreme Court, who overturned the District Court’s decision and ruled in favor of the plaintiffs. The court stated that if the student’s actions did not disrupt the learning environment, or advocate or cause harm to themselves or others, it was permissible. This has been the rationale in virtually every other opinion held by the court regarding student’s constitutional rights. Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969)

While a student’s right to free speech is protected, it is not a blanket protection covering any form of protest. A recent example of this is Morse v. Frederick, also known as the “Bong Hits 4 Jesus” case.Morse v. Frederick, 127 S. Ct. 2618 (2007) This case is particularly eye-opening in that the offense occurred off school grounds. Frederick, a high school student, displayed a banner at a local parade featuring the phrase “Bong Hits 4 Jesus,” a reference to marijuana use. Morse, a school official, noticed the banner and instructed the student to take it down. When Frederick refused, he was suspended by Morse and the decision was upheld by the school board. Frederick sued, claiming protection under his 1st amendment rights. This time the Supreme Court sided with the school board, noting “ … schools may take steps to safeguard those entrusted to their care from speech that can reasonably be regarded as encouraging illegal drug use, [therefore] the school officials in this case did not violate the First Amendment…” This fits with the consistent message of the courts – a student’s Constitutional rights will be protected only as long as their exercise does not endanger the health or academic progress of others.

Other cases regarding the Rights of Free Speech & Expression:

West Virginia v. Barnette, 1943 – The court ruled that it is unconstitutional to require students to salute the American flag. The 1st amendment not only protects freedom “of” expression but also freedom “from” expression. West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, 319 U.S. 624 (1943)

Bethel School District v. Fraser, 1986 – Washington high school student Matthew Fraser was suspended for using sexually explicit language in a speech given on school grounds. The court sided with the school, affirming that schools can prohibit “lewd, indecent or plainly offensive” language. Bethel School District No. 403 v. Fraser, 478 U.S. 675 (1986)

Guiles v. Marineau, 2004 – A 14- year old student in Vermont was suspended for repeatedly wearing a T-shirt depicting President George W Bush as an alcoholic and a cocaine addict. The shirt contained both written and visual depictions of banned substances. The court sided with the student, citing two factors: 1) the shirt did not advocate the use of illegal drugs and 2) the shirt did not cause significant disruptions to the learning environment. Guiles v. Marineau, 461 F.3d 320, 324-25 (2d. Cir. 2006)

Summary – A student’s exercise of speech or expression is legal and constitutionally protected so long as it doesn’t:

1. endanger the public

2. disrupt the learning environment

3. advocate the use of illegal substances or other violations of the law

Student Expression Quiz

https://mclellan.law.msu.edu/quizzes/student-expression-quiz

4th Amendment

Unreasonable Search & Seizure

https://youtu.be/yexA13FDYxQ

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tY4fPF6dijU

The student’s desire for freedom of speech can only be matched by their desire for privacy and for security of their possessions. The right of school officials to search a student’s belongings is a contentious issue, and few teachers know the limits of their authority and few students understand the extent of their rights. Just as Tinker v. Des Moines set the standard for the protection of 1st Amendment rights, so did another case set the precedent for search & seizure: New Jersey v. T. L. O., 469 U.S. 325 (1985).

Two female high school students were caught smoking in the restroom and assistant principal Theodore Choplick confronted them. One of the two admitted her wrongdoing but the other student (T.L.O.) denied it. Choplick searched T.L.O.’s purse and discovered cigarettes, drugs and drug paraphernalia, along with a large amount of money. T.L.O. was tried and convicted in court on charges of delinquency. The student countered that the school had violated her 4th amendment rights, depriving her of protection against unreasonable search and seizure (i.e. searching without a warrant) and the evidence should be inadmissible. The Supreme Court disagreed, stating: “a school official may properly conduct a search of a student’s person if the official has a reasonable suspicion that a crime has been or is in the process of being committed, or reasonable cause to believe that the search is necessary to maintain school discipline or enforce school policies.”

This is a departure from the court’s usual position requiring “probable cause” for government officials to search someone without a warrant. This change, although appearing slight, has enormous ramifications. School officials may search someone based solely upon a well-grounded suspicion, not iron-clad evidence of wrongdoing. This is analogous to the difference between “reasonable doubt” and “beyond a shadow of a doubt.” This threshold however applies only to school personnel and NOT to law enforcement officials on school grounds. The court has been careful not to slide down that slippery slope. In the court’s decision, they state that a teacher’s right to protect him- or herself and the safety of their students is on par with the rights of firefighters, EMS, OSHA officials, etc. The right to privacy must be balanced against the public’s right to safety. In a school, the balance is tilted toward protecting safety and maintaining order, even if it is at the expense of student rights.

The issue of locker searches has not come to the Supreme Court. As the locker is school property and therefore “public space” it is not afforded the same protections as a student’s personal possessions.

State of Iowa v. Marzel Jones (2003) – A student whose locker was cleaned out by school personnel. Finding a small amount of marijuana, the student was charged. Marzel claimed 4th amendment protection against unreasonable search & seizure but was denied by the State Supreme Court who “noted that the search occurred on school grounds, ‘where the State is responsible for maintaining discipline, health, and safety.’(Bd. of Ed. of Indep. Sch. Dist. 92 v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822)”.  State of Iowa vs. Marzel Jones, Appellee 02-505 (2003).

Another issue of concern has been the constitutionality of drug screenings for student-athletes.

Vernonia School District v. Acton (1995) – 7th grade Oregon student James Acton signed up to play football but refused to take a mandatory urine test. Drug testing was administered to athletes after a recent ‘explosion’ in drug-use and the related discipline problems which arose. Citing public health concerns and noting the prevalence of student-athletes involved in drug-related incidents, the school board deemed urinalysis a necessary requirement for participation in sports. The Supreme Court agreed and upheld their decision. Once again, the desire to protect public health overrode student’s desire for privacy.  Vernonia School District 47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646 (1995)

Summary – School personnel may search a student and their belongings if the health & welfare of the public is at risk or they have a ‘reasonable suspicion’ that a crime has been, is being, or will be committed

5th & 14th Amendment

The Right to Due Process

These amendments protect an individual’s right to a fair trial and must be considered whenever “a person’s good name, reputation, honor, or integrity is at stake because of what the government is doing to him…” Wisconsin v. Constantineau, 400 U.S. 433 (1971)

1). This includes the enforcement of disciplinary actions such as suspension or expulsion. The expectations of a fair trial are very different however, depending on the circumstances. Disciplinary expulsion is treated differently than an ‘academic dismissal.’ Claire La Roche makes the point by citing Barnard v. Inhabitants of Shelburne: “Misconduct is a very different matter from failure to attain a standard of excellence in studies…. A public hearing may be regarded as helpful to the ascertainment of misconduct and useless or harmful in finding out the truth as to scholarship.” (emphasis added)

According to La Roche’s interpretation of the courts, the following are necessary in the expulsion of a student on disciplinary grounds:

1. a timely & formal hearing

2. a detailed explanation of the charges

3. a strict adherence to the schools stated policy

4. a ‘punishment that fits the crime’

She goes on: “To ensure fundamental fairness, decisions must be based on the facts and supported by the evidence. Moreover, punishment should be commensurate with the severity of the offense. Consequently, it is important for schools to establish guidelines and be consistent with sanctions.”

Other Miscellaneous Cases

The following are other judgments handed down by the Supreme Court:

School uniforms and dress codes are intended to stop disruptions to the learning process by banning lewd, obscene or offensive clothing. As such, the courts have ruled them constitutional despite students pleading for “the freedom of expression” and the lesser-known “freedom to see skin.”

Corporal punishment (physically disciplining a student) barely passed a constitutional challenge in 1977 with a divided court ruling 5-4 that it is neither “cruel and unusual punishment” nor a denial of due process. (Ingraham v. Wright, 430 U.S. 651 [1977])  While corporal punishment is not allowed in Michigan, there are states where it is still legal.

The censorship of school newspapers was upheld with the understanding that the school is not a “forum of public expression.” Further, the justices declared that a school “need not tolerate student speech that is inconsistent with its basic educational mission.” (Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier, 484 U.S. 260 [1988]).

Additional Information

Religion and the Law

- Prayer, or other religious activities cannot be initiated by the school or teacher

- Prayer and other religious activities are permitted if initiated by students

- Schools must give religious organizations the same access to facilities as they give other secular organizations

- Prayer permitted in school if initiated by students, and does not interfere with the functioning of the school; all students not required to participate

- Schools cannot teach a particular religion, but may teach the history of religion, comparative religions, or the role of religion in the history of the United States or other countries

- No religious symbols permitted

Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits discrimination based on race, color or national origin.

Title IX prohibits discrimination based on gender.

Family Education Right and Privacy Act (FERPA): makes school records open to parents and students; must inform parents of their rights regarding records; must provide access; must create procedures for allowing students and parents to challenge and/or amend information believed to be inaccurate; protects against disclosure of confidential information to third parties without consent.

Summary

In summary, within teaching there is a unique set of ethical relationships and legal obligations that are embedded in the work of a teacher. Teachers have the responsibility to build moral character and be an example of that too. Adhering to a shared code of ethics can assist teachers in mitigating risk and protecting students and themselves.

The federal government makes general regulations for education and contributes very little funding for the schools (Federal Role, n.d.).

The states have most of the power because they are able to set the standards for teachers and students, and they fund the public school system almost completely (ECS, 1999).

The district has the power in the area entrusted to them by the state. Each district has an elected school board that determines how state standards are achieved and anything else they see fit to better the students’ education (Office of the Education Ombudsman, n.d.).

The superintendent oversees the schools in the district and makes sure they are following what is set by the states and the district (ECS, 1999).

The principals manage their individual school with assistance from the assistant principal (Office of the Education Ombudsman, n.d.).

The teachers instruct the students in accordance with the standards set before them by all levels of the hierarchy.

Thoughts

Watch the following video with this question in mind:  Freedom of speech remains a hot topic in schools. What do you think about the court’s ruling on Frederick’s banner? What elements of this case relate to the more current case described below. What elements are different?

Time Magazine article:

https://time.com/6075067/supreme-court-cheerleader-snapchat/

Bong Hits 4 Jesus? | Morse v. Frederick

Dig Deeper

https://shibbolethsp.jstor.org/start?entityID=https%3A%2F%2Fidp.uark.edu%2Fopenathens&dest=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20694791&site=jstor

Untangling Legal Issues that Affect Teachers and Student Teachers

https://www.findlaw.com/education/teachers-rights/teachers-rights-basics.html

Teachers Rights Basics

https://lawshelf.com/videocoursesmoduleview/the-basic-structure-of-education-law/

The Basic Structure of Education Law

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3xLo0ZiY6mE&t=1s

Code of Ethics for Arkansas Educators Training Video

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Test your vocabulary skills!

An interactive H5P element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here:
https://uark.pressbooks.pub/introductiontoeducation/?p=21#h5p-1

Modified from “Protecting the Profession – Professional Ethics in the Classroom” by Troy Hutchings

From Kenneth Howe, “A Conceptual Basis for Ethics in Teacher Education,” Journal of Teacher Education 37 (May-June 1986): 6.

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” by Alyschia Conn, Jasmine Tucay and Sarah Wolff licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0 and “Education 2010 – Introduction to Education” by Brenda Alward.

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_and_Cultural_Foundations_of_American_Education/Philosophy_and_Ethics/Ethical_Teaching

Teachers’ Rights in the Classroom. (2016, September 21). Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/teachers-rights-in-the-classroom.html.

9

What is an Educational Philosophy?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

What is Educational Philosophy?

What makes a teacher? Teaching is like a salad. Think about it. If you were to attend a party for any given holiday, the number of and variations to each salad recipe that might be present for consumption could outnumber those present at the party. There are so many different ways to teach, varying circumstances to take into account, and philosophies to apply to each classroom. And what better way to have a positive impact on the world than to offer knowledge for consumption? The term ‘teacher’ can be applied to anyone who imparts knowledge of any topic, but it is generally more focused on those who are hired to do so (teach, n.d., n.p.). In imparting knowledge to our students, it is inevitable that we must take into account our own personal philosophies, or pedagogies, and determine not only how we decide what our philosophies are, but also how those impact our consumers.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Define, describe, and identify the four branches of educational philosophy

- Outline at least two educational philosophies that influence our schools

- Explain how educational philosophies influence the choice of curriculum and classroom instructional practices

- Develop a personal philosophy concerning teaching and learning

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Philosophy

- Pedagogy

- Constructivism

- Perennialism

- Essentialism

- Progressivism

- Romanticism

- Behaviorism

Lessons in Pedagogy

What, exactly, are education philosophies? According to Thelma Roberson (2000), most prospective teachers confuse their beliefs with the ideas of teaching (p. 6). Education philosophies, then, are not what you want to do in class to aid learning, but why you do them and how they work. For example, Roberson’s students state they “want to use cooperative learning techniques” in their classroom. The question posed is, why? “[I]s cooperative learning a true philosophy or is it something you do in the classroom because of your belief about the way children learn?” (Roberson, 2000, p. 6). Philosophies need to translate ideas into action – if you want to use certain techniques, then you need to understand how they are effective in the classroom to create that portion of your education philosophy. It helps to have an overview of the various schools out there.

- Perennialism – Focuses on human concerns that have caused concern for centuries, revealed through ‘great works’ (Ornstein, 2003, p. 110)  It focuses on great works of art, literature and enduring ideas.

- Essentialism – Emphasizes skills and subjects that are needed by all in a productive society. This is the belief in “Back to Basics”.  Rote learning is emphasized and

- Progressivism – Instruction features problem solving and group activities – The instructor acts as a facilitator as opposed to a leader (Ornstein, 2003, p. 110)

- Social Reconstructionism – Instruction that focuses on significant social and economic problems in an effort to solve them (Ornstein, 2003, pg.110)

- Existentialism – Classroom dialogue stimulates awareness – each person creates an awareness gleaned from discussion and encourages deep personal reflection on his or her convictions (Ornstein, 2003, p. 108).

Perennialism

- Knowledge that has been passed through the ages should be continued as the basis of the curriculum, like the classic works of Plato and Einstein.

- Reason, logic, and analytical thought are valued and encouraged

- Only information that stood the test of time is relevant.  It is believed these prepare students for life and help to develop rational thinking.

- The classes most likely to be considered under this approach would be history, science, math, and religion classes (Educational Philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

Essentialism

- Essentialists believe that there is a universal pool of knowledge needed by all students.

- The fundamentals of teaching are the basis of the curriculum: math, science, history, foreign language, and English. Vocational classes are not seen as a necessary part of educational training.

- Classrooms are formal, teacher-centered, and students are passive learners.

- Evaluations are predominately through testing, and there are few, if any, projects or portfolios.

YouTube video: https://youtu.be/EMIW3dzuPsQ

Progressivism

- This is a student-centered form of instruction where students follow the scientific method of questioning and searching for the answer.

- Evaluations include projects and portfolios.

- Current events are used to keep students interested in the required subject matter.

- Students are active learners as opposed to passive learners.

- The teacher is a facilitator rather than the center of the educational process.

- Student input is encouraged, and students are asked to find their interpretation of the answer, have a choice in projects and assignments. (Educational Philosophies in the classroom, pg.1).

- Real world problem solving emphasized.

- Subjects are integrated.

- Interaction among students.

- Students have a voice in the classroom.

Social Reconstructivism

- This student-centered philosophy strives to instill a desire to make the world a better place.

- It places a focus on controversial world issues and uses current events as a springboard for the thinking process.

- These students are taught the importance of working together to bring about change.

- These teachers incorporate what is happening in the world with what they are learning in the classroom (Educational Philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

Which do you think is the most selected educational philosophy?

1. Romanticism

2. Essentialism

3. Progressivism

4. Perennialism

Additional Beliefs in Regards to Teaching/Learning

Constructivism

Active participation is the key to this teaching style. Students are free to explore their own ideas and share concepts with one another in nontraditional ways. “Hands on activity […] is the most effective way of learning and is considered true learning” (Educational Philosophies in the Classroom, pg.1).

What is Constructivism?

The root word of Constructivism is “construct.” Basically, Constructivism is the theory that knowledge must be constructed by a person, not just transmitted to the person. People construct knowledge by taking new information and integrating it with their own pre-existing knowledge (Cooper, 2007; Woolfolk, 2007). It means they are actively involved in seeking out information, creating projects, and working with material being presented versus just sitting and listening to someone “talk at them”.

Jean Piaget’s Theory of Constructivism

Jean Piaget was one of the major constructivists in past history. His theory looks at how people construct knowledge cognitively. In Piaget’s theory, everybody has schematas.  These are the categories of information we create to organize information we take in.  For example, “food” is one schema we may have.  We have a variety of information on food. It can be organized into different food groups such as the following: bread/ pastas, fruits, vegetables, meats, dairy, and sweets (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007).  We use these schematas to help us “make sense” of what we see, hear and experience, and integrate this information into our knowledge bank.

According to Piaget’s theory, one way people construct knowledge is through assimilation. People assimilate when they incorporate new knowledge and information into pre-existing schemes. Here is an example: A child sees a car and learns that it can be called a vehicle. Then the child sees a motorcycle and learns that it can be called a vehicle as well. Then the child sees a truck and calls it a vehicle. Basically, the child developed a schema for “vehicles” and incorporated trucks into that schema (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007).

Another way people construct knowledge, according to Piaget’s theory, is through accommodation. People accommodate when they modify or change their pre-existing schemes. Here is an example.: A child sees a dog (a furry four-legged animal) and learns that it can be called a pet. Then the child sees a cat (a furry four-legged animal) and learns that it can be called a pet as well. Then the child sees a raccoon (also a furry four-legged animal) and calls it a pet. Afterwards, the child learns from his or her parents that a raccoon is not a pet. At first, the child develops a schema for “pet” which includes all furry four-legged animals. Then the child learns that not all furry four-legged animals are pets. Because of this, the child needs to accommodate his or her schema for “pet.” According to Piaget, people learn through a balance of assimilation and accommodation (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007).

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory of Constructivism

Lev Vygotsky was another major constructivist in past history. While Jean Piaget’s theory is a cognitive perspective, Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural perspective. His theory looks at how people construct knowledge by collaborating with others. In Vygotsky’s theory, people learn and construct knowledge within the Zone of Proximal Development. People have an independent level of performance where they can do things independently. Likewise, people have a frustration level where tasks are too difficult to be able to perform on their own.  In between there is an instructional level where they can do things above the independent level with the help and guidance of others. The range, or zone, between the independent and frustration levels is the Zone of Proximal Development (Cooper, 2007; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007; Woolfolk, 2007).

In the Zone of Proximal Development, assistance needs to be given by another person. This assistance, help, or guidance is known as scaffolding. Because the zone has a range, assistance needs to be given, but not too much. If not enough assistance is given, a person may not be able to learn the task. On the other hand, if too much assistance is given, the person may not be able to fully construct the new acquired information into knowledge. For example, a child needs help doing math homework. With no help, the child may not be able to do it. With too much help, the homework is done for the child, so the child may not fully understand the math homework anyway (Cooper, 2007; Kail & Cavanaugh, 2007; Woolfolk, 2007).

Constructivism in the Classroom

In the classroom, the teacher can use Constructivism to help teach the students. The teacher can base the instruction on the cognitive strategies, experiences, and culture of the students. The teacher can make the instruction interesting by correlating it with real life applications, especially applications within the students’ own communities. Students can work and collaborate together during particular activities. The teacher can provide feedback for the students so they know what they can do independently and know what they need help with. New concepts can be related to the students’ prior knowledge. The teacher can also explain how new concepts can be used in different contexts and subjects. All these ideas are based on Constructivism (Sherman & Kurshan, 2005).

Research shows that constructivist teaching can be effective. According to research conducted by Jong Suk Kim at Chungnum National University in Korea, constructivist teaching is more effective than traditional teaching when looking at the students’ academic achievement. The research also shows that students have some preference for constructivist teaching (Kim, 2005). Again, when the theory of Constructivism is actually applied in the classroom, it can be effective for teaching students.

It is not the sole responsibility of the teachers to educate the students. According to Constructivism, students have some responsibilities when learning. A student may be quick to blame the teacher for not understanding the material, but it could be the case that the student is not doing everything he or she could be doing. Because knowledge is constructed, not transmitted, students need to make an effort to assimilate, accommodate, and make sense of information. They also need to make an effort to collaborate with others, especially if they are having a hard time understanding the information.

Four Philosophies in Assessment

In addition, the ‘constructivist’ school of philosophy, rooted in the Pragmatic pedagogy and branched off from the ‘Social Reconstructivist’ school, has gained much popularity. Around the turn of the century (early 1990s), many teachers felt the rote memorization and mindless routine that was common then was ineffective, and began to look for alternate ways to reach their students (Ornstein, 2003, p. 111). Through the constructivist approach, “students “construct” knowledge through an interaction between what they already think and know and with new ideas and experiences” (Roberson, 2000, p. 8). This is an active learning process that leads to deeper understanding of the concepts presented in class, and is based on the abilities and readiness of the children rather than set curriculum guidelines (Ornstein, 2003, p. 112). Constructivism “emphasizes socially interactive and process-oriented ‘hands on’ learning in which students work collaboratively to expand and revise their knowledge base” (Ornstein, 2003, p. 112). Essentially, knowledge which is shaped by experience is reconstructed, or altered, to assist the student in understanding new concepts (Ornstein, 2003, p. 112). You, as the teacher, help the students build the scaffolding they need to maintain the information even after the test is taken and graded.

Creating Your Philosophy

Educators continue to build upon their philosophy over their career. They often choose elements from various philosophies and integrate them into their own.  When identifying a philosophy, here are things to consider:

- What is the purpose of education?

- What do you believe should be taught?

- How do you think curriculum should be taught?

- What is your role as the teacher?

- What is the role of the student?

- What is the value of teacher-centered instruction and student-centered instruction; where and when do you incorporate each?

Thoughts

What philosophy are you leaning towards?  Take the following quiz to find out!

Make a copy and take the quiz on your own:

https://docs.google.com/document/d/1riF81PX9IDZLlQ4K0rBpkZMPlIA5cQ-twb-Soz6ygnA/copy

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

- What is your Educational Philosophy? https://www.edutopia.org/blog/what-your-educational-philosophy-ben-johnson

- Four Philosophies and Their Applications to Education https://docs.google.com/document/d/149dx9pNRqIYp-EAYVHgXkxUV_u2cnmbGmvMgS863P4o/edit

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” by Dionne Nichols licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0

10

Excellence or Equity...Which is More Important?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

Excellence or Equity…Which is More Important?

In the United States, the start of the twentieth century marked a movement towards the inclusion of more people than ever into the educational system. In 1900, close to six percent of teenagers graduated from high school (Thattai, 2001). States attempted to increase that number by making that goal more accessible through the construction of more high schools in both urban and rural localities (Wolfe, 2001). Laws were passed that made school mandatory for children until elementary school; later, it became obligatory until they became sixteen years old (Thattai, 2001). However, a good and equal education was not yet widely available to all Americans. Marginalized groups hovered at the fringes of the educational system. African-Americans received unequal and inferior educations as compared to that of whites, as did other minorities and students with limited English proficiency (LEP). Women were discriminated against and the handicapped in being fully included in the educational system. Major developments in the twentieth-century education system include various rulings and acts that promoted a fair and equal education for Americans that had been neglected and marginalized.  In this chapter, we will explore some of the obstacles facing equity in education.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Identify the historical struggles for equity and excellence in education

- Describe the impact of tracking students in education

- Provide a brief overview of the struggles for equal educational opportunities for identified groups of students

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Tracking

- Equity

- Equality

Equity and Equality

Educational equity, also referred to as “Equity in education”, is a measure of achievement, fairness, and opportunity in education. The study of education equity is often linked with the study of excellence and equity.

Educational equity depends on two main factors. The first is fairness, which implies that factors specific to one’s conditions should not interfere with the potential of academic success. The second important factor is inclusion, which refers to a comprehensive standard that applies to everyone in a certain education system. These two factors are closely related and depend on each other for an educational system’s success.

The growing importance of education equity is based on the premise that an individual’s level of education directly correlates to the future quality of life. Therefore, an academic system that practices educational equity is a strong foundation of a society that is fair and thriving. However, inequity in education is challenging to avoid and can be broken down into inequity due to socioeconomic standing, race, gender, or disability. Educational equity is also based on the historical context of the location, people, and structure. History shapes the outcome of individuals within the education system.

Often, the terms “equity” and “equality” are interchanged when referring to educational equity. Although similar, there can be important distinctions between the two.

Equity

Equity recognizes that some are at a larger disadvantage than others and aims at compensating for these people’s misfortunes and disabilities to ensure that everyone can attain the same type of healthy lifestyle.] Examples of this are when libraries offer literacy programs, when schools offer courses in English as a second language, and when foundations target scholarships to students from poor families, they operationalize a belief in the equity of access as fairness and as justice.  Equity recognizes this uneven playing field and aims to take extra measures by giving those who are in need more than others who are not. Equity aims at making sure that everyone’s lifestyle is equal even if it may come at the cost of unequal distribution of access and goods. Social justice leaders in education strive to ensure equitable outcomes for their students.

Equality

The American Library Association defines equality as: “access to channels of communication and sources of information that is made available on even terms to all–a level playing field–is derived from the concept of fairness as uniform distribution, where everyone is entitled to the same level of access and can avail themselves if they so choose.” (ALA). In this definition of equality, no one person has an unfair advantage. Everyone is given equal opportunities and accessibility and is then free to do what they please with it. However, this is not to say that everyone is then inherently equal. Some people may choose to seize these open and equal opportunities while others let them pass by.

Tracking and Equity

Tracking systems, are selective measures to locate students in different educational levels. They are created to increase the efficiency of education.  It allows making more or less homogeneous groups of students perceive education that suits their educational skills. However, tracking can affect educational equity if the selection process is biased and children with a certain background are structurally located to lower tracks. The effects of tracking are that students are both viewed and treated differently depending on which track they take. It can generate unequal achievement levels between individual students and it can restrict access to higher tracks and higher education. The quality of teaching and curricula vary between tracks and as a result, those of the lower track is disadvantaged with inferior resources, teachers, etc. In many cases, tracking stunts students who may develop the ability to excel past their original placement.

Tracking systems

The type of tracking has an impact on the level of educational equity, which is especially determined by the degree to which the system is differentiated. Less differentiated systems, such as standardized comprehensive schools, reach higher levels of equity in comparison to more differentiated, or tracked systems.

Within the tracked systems, the kind of differentiation matters as well for educational equity. Differentiation of schools could be organized externally or internally.[6] External differentiation means that tracks are separated in different schools. Certain schools follow a certain track, which prepares students for academic or professional education, or career or vocational education. This form is less beneficial for educational equity than internal differentiation or course-by-course tracking. Internal tracking means that, within a single school, courses are instructed at different levels, which is a less rigid kind of tracking that allows for more mobility.[11]

The organization of the tracking systems themselves is also important for its effect on educational equity. For both differentiation systems, a higher number of tracks and a smaller number of students per track is granting more educational equity. In addition, the effects of tracking are less rigid and have a smaller impact on equity if the students are located in tracks when they are older. The earlier the students undergo educational selection, the less mobile they are to develop their abilities, and the less they can benefit from peer effects.

Income and Equity

Income has always played an important role in shaping academic success. Those who come from a family of a higher socioeconomic status (SES) are privileged with more opportunities than those of lower SES. Those who come from a higher SES can afford things like better tutors, rigorous SAT/ACT prep classes, impressive summer programs, and so on. Parents generally feel more comfortable intervening on behalf of their children to acquire better grades or more qualified teachers. Parents of a higher SES are more willing to donate large sums of money to a certain institution to better improve their child’s chances of acceptance, along with other extravagant measures. This creates an unfair advantage and a distinct class barrier.

Educational scores are higher in rich countries with less economic inequality

Costs of education

The extraordinarily high cost of the many prestigious high schools and universities in the United States makes an attempt at a “level playing field” for all students not so level. High-achieving low-income students do not have the means to attend selective schools that better prepare a student for later success. Because of this, low-income students do not even attempt to apply to the top-tier schools for which they are more than qualified. In addition, neighborhoods generally segregated by class leave lower-income students in lower-quality schools. For higher-quality schooling, students in low-income areas would have to take public transport which they can’t pay for.  Fewer than 30 percent of students in the bottom quarter of incomes even enroll in a four-year school and among that group, fewer than half graduate.

Race and Equity

From a scientific point of view, the human species is a single species. Nevertheless, the term racial group is enshrined in legislation, and phrases such as race equality and race relations are in widespread official use. Racial equity in education means the assignment of students to public schools and within schools without regard to their race. This includes providing students with a full opportunity for participation in all educational programs regardless of their race.

The educational system and its response to racial concerns in education vary from country to country. Below are some examples of countries that have to deal with racial discrimination in education.

- US Department of Education: The Commission on Equity and Excellence in Education issued a seminal report in 2013, a blueprint for making the dream of equity, and a world-class education, for each and every American child a reality.

The struggle for equality of access to formal education and equality of excellent educational outcomes is part of the history of education in this country and is tied up with the economic, political, social history of the peoples who are part of it. From the beginning of this nation, there were many barriers to the schooling and education of girls and racial, national origin, and language groups not from the dominant culture. Approaches and resources for achieving equality and equity in the public schooling of girls and ethnic, racial, and language minority groups are still evolving.

- Asia-Pacific Region: Globalization of the economy, increasingly diverse and interconnected populations, and rapid technological change are posing new and demanding challenges to individuals and societies alike. School systems are rethinking the knowledge and skills students need for success, and the educational strategies and systems required for all children to achieve them. Within the Asia-Pacific region, for example, Korea, Shanghai-China, and Japan are examples of Asian education systems that have climbed the ladder to the top in both quality and equity indicators.

- South Africa: A major task of South Africa’s new government in 1994 was to promote racial equity in the state education system. During the apartheid era, which began when the National Party won control of Parliament in 1948 and ended with a negotiated settlement more than four decades later, the provision of education was racially unequal by design. Resources were lavished on schools serving white students while schools serving the black majority were systematically deprived of qualified teachers, physical resources, and teaching aids such as textbooks and stationery. The rationale for such inequity was a matter of public record.

Gender and Equity

Gender equity in practicality refers to both male and female concerns, yet most of the gender bias is against women in the developing world. Gender discrimination in education has been a very evident and underlying problem in many countries, especially in developing countries where cultural and societal stigma continues to hinder growth and prosperity for women. Global Campaign for Education (GCE) followed a survey called “Gender Discrimination in Violation of Rights of Women and Girls” which states that one-tenth of girls in primary school is ‘unhappy’ and this number increases to one-fifth by the time they reach secondary schools. Some of the reasons that girls provided include harassment, restorations to freedom, and an inherent lack of opportunities, compared to boys. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) understands Education as a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other human rights. It promotes individual freedom and empowerment and yields important development benefits.

Gender-based inequity in education is not just a phenomenon in developing countries. An article in The New York Times highlighted how education systems, especially the public school system, tend to cause segregation between genders. Boys and girls are often taught with different approaches, which programs children to think they are different and deserve different treatment. However, studies show that boys and girls learn differently, and therefore should be taught differently. Boys learn better when they keep moving, while girls learn better sitting in one place with silence. Therefore—in this reasoning—segregating the genders promotes gender equity in education, as both boys and girls have optimized learning.

Impact of gender discrimination on the economy

Education is universally acknowledged as an essential human right because it highly impacts the socio-economic and cultural aspects of a country. Equity in education increases the workforce of the nation, therefore increasing national income, and economic productivity. It reduces fertility and infant mortality, improves child health, increases life expectancy, and increases living standards. These are factors that allow economic stability and growth in the future. Above all, female education can increase output levels and allow countries to attain sustainable development. Equity in the education of women also reduces the possibilities of trafficking and exploitation of women. UNESCO also refers to gender equity as a major factor that allows for sustainable development.

Challenges in Educational Equity

The long-term social and economic consequences of having little education are more tangible now than ever before. Those without the skills to participate socially and economically in society generate higher costs of healthcare, income support, child welfare, and social security.

While both basic education and higher education have both been improved and expanded in the past 50 years, this has not translated to a more equal society in terms of academics. While the feminist movement has made great strides for women, other groups have not been as fortunate. Generally, social mobility has not increased, while economic inequality has. So, while more students are getting a basic education and even attending universities, a dramatic divide is present and many people are still being left behind.

For more information, explore the following sections:

- Brown v. Board of Education – United States Supreme Court case that determined segregating public schools unconstitutional

- Education for justice

- Gender inequality in curricula

- Right to education

- Sex differences in education

- Pedagogy

What do you think is the primary reason people choose to go into teaching?

1. Salary

2. Prestige

3. Making a Difference

4. Work Schedule

Thoughts

Watch the following video with this question in mind:  Is this teacher speaking to a more intrinsic or extrinsic reward for teaching?

Insert Every kid needs a Champion You Tube video

https://youtu.be/SFnMTHhKdkw

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

“Equality and Equity of Access: What’s the Difference?”. Ala.org. May 29, 2007. Retrieved November 19, 2014.

“Teaching boys and girls separately”. The New York Times. Retrieved November 19, 2014.Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Modified from “Educational Equity” on WikiBooks.

https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Foundations_of_Education_and_Instructional_Assessment/History_of_Education/20th_Century

11

What Can a New Teacher Expect?

Jennifer Beasley and Myra Haulmark

What Can a New Teacher Expect?

Why do teachers teach? It is a rather simple question, however the question what is a teacher, must be addressed first. Merriam-Webster’s definition of a teacher is “one whose occupation is to instruct” (Merriam-Webster, 2008, para. 1). That is a rather one dimensional definition of a teacher, as teachers these days offer so much more to the class than just the information; they offer themselves. A collective definition of a teacher, is someone who “yearns to help children learn, watch them grow, and make a meaningful difference in the world” (Teacher Support Network, 2007, para. 2). This definition must be the main reason as to why individuals pursue teaching as a career. Generally the pay is low to fair, but the overall rewards are much greater.  As a teacher, one can touch the hearts of the young and open their minds in order to tap their thirst for knowledge.

Objectives and Key Terms

In this chapter, readers will…

- Discuss why the act of instructing students can be a stumbling block for new teachers.

- Explain why new teachers often have difficulties with parents who should be their natural allies.

- Summarize the chief strategies that can contribute to a successful first year of teaching

Key terms in the chapter are…

- Culture shock

- Mentor

- Collaboration

Starting their career is for most people one of the most exciting and energizing periods of their lives. For most young people, it represents their unofficial entrance into the adult world. They are often in a new environment with new people and challenges, and they have real responsibilities. This is especially true for new teachers.

For many, the transition into full-time teaching is relatively easy and satisfying. For others, however, the first year is a struggle. Some new teachers are shocked and disappointed by their initial experience of being a teacher. For most, however, the first year of teaching is a mixed bag of highs and lows. In this chapter, we try to help prospective teachers anticipate some of the problems that lie ahead. All of the material comes directly from the experiences of beginning teachers.

We have good news and bad news for you. First, the good news: Forecasters predict that as a result of teacher retirement and student enrollment growth, U.S. schools will need about 4 million new teachers between 2013 and 2021.

People entering the teaching profession in the second decade of the twenty-first century typically will have a rich variety of options and opportunities from which to choose. So much for the good news.

Now the bad news: The first year of teaching can be a rough one—too rough for many beginners. Each year, many new teachers walk into their classrooms with energy, high hopes, and rose-colored glasses, only to face unexpected problems that cause them to give up on teaching or radically lower their perceptions of their capabilities as teachers.

Rather than ignoring or—even worse—sugarcoating these problems, we focus on them, even at the risk of frightening some readers. We do so because we believe “forewarned is forearmed,” and many of the problems discussed in this chapter can be either prevented or radically reduced in intensity. Further, new teachers can actually find satisfaction in solving their problems and in succeeding as professionals.

Surprise is a big part of the first year too. New teachers often report their astonishment at this or that experience or event. The first year is intense because of the unexpected demands and the startling events that lurk in what was thought to be a familiar world: the classroom. These surprises often come wrapped in everyday boxes; some contain sweet treasures, and others hold booby traps. These surprises could be organized in the following way:

- The School Environment

- What is the Role of an Administrator?

- Working with Your Fellow Teachers

- Preparing Your Instruction

- Relationships with Students

- Partnering with Parents

In this chapter, we look at each of these categories and try to take some of the surprises out of the first year of teaching. Our larger intention, however, is to help you mobilize yourself by preparing for the problems, developing your strengths, and shoring up your weaknesses.

Which of the following might be the biggest challenge for you as a new teacher?

1. Understanding my school environment

2. Working with an administrator

3. Working with other teachers

4. Preparing instruction

5. Working with students

6. Working with parents

The School Environment

One of the first obstacles as a new teacher is understanding the culture of the school.   To manage this culture shock, first-year teachers and those new to a school district may be required to go through an orientation.  This can help new teachers feel supported. Whether or not a school provides this, there are a few things new teachers can do to get to know their school better.

- Understand the families and community the school serves. Teachers should learn about and prepare for common challenges faced by students in their schools. For example, some children from underserved communities may need help with non-cognitive skills such as persistence and self-control in order to succeed in school. Talking to administrators and doing independent research can provide insight into what will and won’t work with students, and may uncover surprising resources.

- Check classroom readiness. New teachers should visit their classrooms before school starts and run down a list. Are there enough tables and chairs for the expected number of students as well as a teacher’s desk? Does the overhead projector work? Is there chalk and/or are there new markers and erasers for the board? Teachers should make sure their classrooms are fully functional; if not, they should alert school staff and make sure problems are corrected.

- Learn safety procedures. Teachers should know all the safety and emergency procedures in their school, from fire drills to lockdowns. Kate Vlchek, a veteran teacher in Aurora, Colorado, warns that new teachers may not receive any hands-on training — just a faculty handbook. Teachers should review these procedures carefully and ask questions to make sure they understand.

What is the Role of the Administrator?

A school administrator, also known as the school principal, is the steward of learning and managing supervisor of their school. They provide vision and leadership to all stakeholders in the school and create a safe and peaceful environment to achieve the mission of learning and educating at the highest level. They guide the day-to-day school business and oversee all activities conducted by the school. They bear the responsibility of all decision-making and are accountable for their efforts to elevate the school to the best level of learning achievements for the students, best teaching skills for the teachers, and best work environment for support staff.

There are many ways a school administrator can be a wonderful partner for a new teacher.

1. Help new teachers find a good mentor

2. Balance the new teacher’s workload

3. Meet with new teachers

4. Be supportive of disciplinary issues

5. Be supportive when parent problems happen

6. They make new teachers a part of their team

Working with your Fellow Teachers

A number of studies have concluded that induction programs can reduce teacher turnover, improve teacher practice, and lead to student success provided the programs are job-embedded and include appropriate mentoring

Preparing Your Instruction

In Chapter 5, we discussed the school curriculum and what is taught in schools.  As new teachers begin to plan the lessons they can be overwhelmed by options.  With little experience in the classroom, it is hard to know just how to plan a lesson or what lessons will look like over the course of a year.  For an inside look at this obstacle and what new teachers can do to help, read the blog “Countdown to Your First Year, What are Students Supposed to Learn?”

Relationships with Students

Earlier on in this resource, we learned a lot about building relationships with students. For more on the power of relationships with students, watch the following short video:

https://youtu.be/kzvm1m8zq5g

Partnering with Parents

Partnering with parents can be a challenge for new teachers.  Often this is the first time that the new teacher has had the chance to meet with parents on their own.  For timely suggestions on how to build positive relationships, read the article “A Strategy for Building Positive Partnerships with Parents.”

Teacher Induction

A number of studies have concluded that induction programs can reduce teacher turnover, improve teacher practice, and lead to student success provided the programs are job-embedded and include appropriate mentoring (Smith & Ingersoll 2004, Howe 2006, Wang et al. 2008; Darling-Hammond et al. 2009). According to Howe (2006), the best teacher induction programs are located in Australia, Britain, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, New Zealand and the United States. They have revealed some common attributes that can be instructive for both expert teachers and new teachers. Examples are extended internship programs, specially trained mentors, comprehensive in-service training, reduced teaching assignments for beginning teachers and emphasis on assistance rather than assessment (Howe, 2006). According to Cherubini (2007) research also suggests that the successful induction of new teachers depends upon having a collegial and collaborative environment in the school (Duncan-Poitier, 2005; Feiman-Nemser, 2003; Ohio Department of Education, 2004; Olebe, 2005).

Successful Induction Practice

What is induction? Induction is the support and guidance provided to novice teachers and school administrators in the early stages of their careers. Induction encompasses orientation to the workplace, socialization, mentoring, and guidance through beginning teacher practice.

The first year of teaching is difficult. New teachers recognize that each year. The most difficult part of the first-year induction process is not by having communicated the tangible procedures, but rather not communicating the morass of undocumented rules and attitudes that comprise institutional culture. (Gregory, 1998) During this induction phase, employers and employees begin relationships that are of fundamental importance in setting standards and behavioral patterns. Induction requires “far more than just a traditional ‘information dump’ if it is to be successful. (Gregory, 1998, p. 17)

Successful induction practices have three main objectives: 1. to help new employees settle into their environment, 2. to help them understand their responsibilities, and 3. to ensure that the organization receives the benefits of a well-trained and highly motivated employee as quickly as possible. (Gregory, 1998) Toward this end, many workplaces appoint a “guide”, “peer-coach”, or “buddy” for the first few weeks. These identified individuals can be significantly more effective if they make a genuine commitment to the values of the institution and the well-being of the new teacher. When considering the teacher induction process, it is important for one to delineate among the various components. For example, the “guides” are usually called mentors, and beginning teachers are typically referred to as novices. This mentor-novice relationship is often the focal point of many state and local induction programs. The induction process typically involves three common evolutionary stages: preparation, orientation, and practice. Although these three stages have similar meanings in educational settings, they often have different connotations. The following “definition of terms” will delineate between these stages.

Thoughts

Become a new teacher takes energy and the ability to access resources needed to grow as a professional.  New teachers reflect on what they do and find ways to learn as they grow.  For a resource on tips for growing as a professional, finish the chapter by reading the following article “4 Tips for New Teachers on Building a Strong Career Foundation.”

Dig Deeper

The following resources are provided when “digging deeper” into the chapter.

Darling-Hammond, L., Chung Wei, R., Andree, A., Richardson, N., and Orhanos, S. (2009). Professional learning in the learning profession: A status report on teacher development in the United States and abroad. N.p.: National Staff Development Council.

Smith, T. and Ingersoll, R. (2004). What are the effects of induction and mentoring on beginning teacher turnover? American Educational Research Journal, 41(3), 681-714.

Howe, E. R. (2006). Exemplary teacher induction: An international review. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 38(3), 287-29.

Cherubini, L. (2007). Speaking up and speaking freely: Beginning teachers’ critical perceptions of their professional induction. The Professional Educator, 29(1), 1-12.

Did You Get It?

Quiz for this chapter

Modified from “Foundations of Education and Instructional Assessment” licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0; “Induction Strategies for New Teachers”

1

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