Chapter Seven: Psychosocial Theory of Development (Erikson)
Psychosocial Theory of Development
Learning Objectives
- Identify and differentiate among Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, with an emphasis on the school years.
- Critically evaluate Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory, including its strengths and limitations.
- Discuss implications of psychosocial development theory on teaching practices and student support.
Erik Erikson (1902–1994), another stage theorist, is well known for his influential psychosocial theory. Psychosocial development theory emphasizes the social nature of our development. Erikson suggested that how we interact with others is what affects our sense of self, or what he called the ego identity. He also proposed that personality development takes place all through the lifespan.
Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage, there is a conflict or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
According to Erikson (1963), trust is the basis of our development during infancy (birth to 12 months). Therefore, the primary task at this stage is to determine trust versus mistrust. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable.
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin exploring their world, they learn to control their actions and act on the environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy versus shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions affects her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act in her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative versus guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Those who do will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled—may develop feelings of guilt. How might over-controlling parents stifle a child’s initiative?
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry versus inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves to their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate when they don’t measure up. What are some things parents and teachers can do to help children develop a sense of competence and a belief in themselves and their abilities?
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity versus role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other people’s perspectives. What happens to apathetic adolescents who do not make a conscious search for identity or those who are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future? These teens will have a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They are unsure of their identity and confused about the future.
People in early adulthood (i.e., 20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy versus isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before developing intimate relationships with others. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity versus stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others, through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation, having little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement.
From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity versus despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. Table 1 below summarizes the stages of Erikson’s theory.
Table 1 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages of Development
|
Stage |
Age (years) |
Developmental Task or |
Description |
|
1 |
0–1 |
Trust vs. mistrust |
Trust that basic needs, such as nourishment and affection, will be met (or develop a mistrust of others) |
|
2 |
1–3 |
Autonomy vs. shame/doubt |
Develop a sense of independence in many tasks (or develop a sense of shame and doubt) |
|
3 |
3–6 |
Initiative vs. guilt |
Learn to take initiative on some activities (or develop guilt for trying) |
|
4 |
7–11 |
Industry vs. inferiority |
Develop self-confidence in abilities when competent (or a sense of inferiority when not) |
|
5 |
12–18 |
Identity vs. confusion |
Experiment with and develop identity and roles (or develop role and identity confusion) |
|
6 |
19–29 |
Intimacy vs. isolation |
Establish intimacy and relationships with others (or feel isolated) |
|
7 |
30–64 |
Generativity vs. stagnation |
Contribute to society and be part of a family (or lack a sense of purpose) |
|
8 |
65– |
Integrity vs. despair |
Experience a sense of integrity and satisfaction (despair over a wasted life) |
Criticism of Psychosocial Theory
Erikson’s theory may be questioned as to whether his stages must be regarded as sequential and only occurring within the age ranges he suggests. There is debate as to whether people only search for identity during the adolescent years or if one stage needs to happen before other stages can be completed. Erikson himself states that each of these processes occurs throughout the lifetime in one form or another, and he emphasizes these periods only because it is at these times that the conflicts become most prominent (Erikson, 1956).
Educational Implications
Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building relationships with peers.
At the preschool level, teachers want to focus on helping children develop healthy personalities and
- Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest.
- Make sure to point out and praise students for good choices.
- Offer continuous, authentic feedback.
- Not ridicule or criticize students. They should find a private place to talk with a child about a poor choice or behavior.
- Help students formulate their own alternate choices by guiding them to a more positive solution and outcome.
- When children experiment, they should not be punished for trying something that may turn out differently from what the teacher had planned.
At the elementary level, teachers should focus on achievement and peer relationships and
- Create a list of classroom duties that need to be completed on a scheduled basis. Ask students for their input when creating the list, as well as giving them a say in who will be in charge of what.
- Discuss and post classroom rules.
- Make sure to include students in the decision-making process when discussing rules.
- Encourage students to think outside of their day-to-day routine by role-playing different situations.
- Let students know that striving for perfection is not as important as learning from mistakes.
- Teach children resilience.
- Encourage children to help students who may be having trouble socially and/or academically.
- Never allow any child to make fun of or bully another child.
- Build confidence by recognizing success in what children do best.
- Provide a variety of choices when making an assignment so that students can express themselves with a focus on their strengths.
During the middle and high school years, building identity and self-esteem should be part of a teacher’s focus.
Classroom examples that can be incorporated at the Middle School and High School Level:
- Treat all students equally. Do not show favoritism to a certain group of students based on gender, race, ability,
academic skills, sexual orientation, or socioeconomic status. - Incorporate guest speakers and curriculum activities from as many areas as possible so as to expose students to many career choices.
- Encourage students to focus on their strengths and acknowledge them when they exhibit work that incorporates these strengths.
- Encourage students to develop confidence by trying different approaches to solving problems.
- Incorporate life skills into lesson planning to increase confidence and self-sufficiency.
- Utilize physical activity to help relieve stress, negative feelings and improve moods (Bianca, 2010).
Review & Practice
Critical Thinking
- How do Erikson’s stages build upon one another, and what happens if a person does not successfully resolve a stage?
- Why does Erikson emphasize social relationships as the primary driver of development?
- How do the conflicts in each stage impact a person’s identity and sense of self?
- What role does culture play in how people experience and resolve each psychosocial stage?
- How does Erikson’s theory compare to Piaget’s cognitive development stages?
- How does the concept of identity vs. role confusion in adolescence connect to the modern challenges of social media and peer pressure?
This chapter was remixed from Spielman, R.M., Jenkins, W.J., & Lovett, M.D. (2020). Psychology 2e. OpenStax. Access for free at https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/9-2-lifespan-theoriesThis chapter includes remixed content from Budzyna, D., & Buckley, D. (2023). The whole child: Development in the early years. ROTEL Project. https://rotel.pressbooks.pub/whole-child/
This chapter includes remixed content from May-Varas, S., Margolis, J., & Mead, T. (2023). Educational learning theories. Open Oregon. https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/educationallearningtheories3rd/
